ssggg* 


PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 
IN  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


BY 

HERBERT  H.  FOSTER,  PH.D. 

PROFESSOR   OF    EDUCATION    IN   THE    UNIVERSITY    OF   VERMONT 


CHARLES   SCRIBNER'S   SONS 

NEW  YORK  CHICAGO  BOSTON 


COPYRIGHT,  1921,  BY 
CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America 
F 


LIBRARY 

ST.nTEACHEB-SCOUEOE 
" 


TO 

MY    MOTHER 


PREFACE 

"The  bane  of  high  school  science  teaching  is  the  notion 
that  it  must  be  taught  differently  from  other  subjects."  These 
words,  spoken  to  the  author  by  a  widely  known  science 
teacher,  are  hi  harmony  with  the  statements  of  many  promi- 
nent and  successful  teachers  in  other  branches  of  high  school 
study.  Some  years  ago,  having  occasion  to  make  a  compara- 
tive study  of  all  the  available  books  on  the  teaching  of  sec- 
ondary school  subjects,  the  author  was  impressed  by  the 
striking  parallel  between  the  best  of  the  books  whenever 
method  of  instruction  was  treated.  The  chief  differences 
were  matters  of  omission,  and  the  omissions  in  books  in  the 
same  field  were  far  from  being  the  same.  The  only  possible 
inference  was  that  certain  general  principles  of  method  are 
valid  in  all  of  the  studies  of  the  high  school  curriculum,  and 
that  the  task  of  each  teacher  is  not  to  construct  his  educa- 
tional method  regardless  of  these  principles,  but  to  adapt  their 
application  to  his  particular  field. 

The  present  text  is  an  attempt  to  assist  the  prospective 
or  untrained  teacher  in  a  study  of  the  principles  upon  which 
method  in  secondary  instruction  must  be  based.  The  book 
is  a  protest  against  formalism  and  mechanism,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  unsystematic  procedure  on  the  other.  The  point 
of  view  is  functional,  in  that  in  each  step  there  is  a  procedure 
from  discovery  of  aim  to  adaptation  of  process  to  aim.  The 
author  is  also  governed  by  the  conviction  that  a  well-planned 
lesson  is  more  than  a  mere  series  of  topics  for  study,  but  as 
a  whole  possesses  an  organic  unity.  While  at  least  the  greater 
part  of  the  content  of  the  book  is  applicable  to  all  stages  of 


VI  PREFACE 

instruction,  it  is  intended  especially  for  the  work  of  the  sec- 
ondary school,  including  the  junior  high  school. 

The  book  is  designed  to  assist  in  the  training  of  teachers. 
Hence  it  must  constantly  be  supplemented  with  intelligent, 
sympathetic  observation  of  actual  secondary  school  instruc- 
tion. The  reader  should  throughout  strive  to  trace  the  ap- 
plication of  the  principles  to  the  field  in  which  he  hopes  to 
teach.  To  the  experienced  teacher  this  practical  applica- 
tion and  significance  will  be  more  immediately  apparent.  In 
any  case,  this  study  of  the  principles  of  method  in  terms  of 
the  schoolroom  and  of  one's  special  subject  will  be  the  sine 
qua  non  for  the  gaining  of  much  practical  benefit  from  the 
text. 

The  author  takes  the  liberty  to  suggest  to  instructors  and 
students  that  a  careful  reading  of  the  analysis  of  each  chap- 
ter or  section,  as  given  in  the  table  of  contents,  precede  the 
study  of  the  text.  By  this  method  one  will  doubtless  gain  a 
better  preliminary  conception  of  the  problems  raised  and  of 
their  treatment.  To  the  reader  who  is  unfamiliar  with  the 
principles  of  education  and  of  educational  psychology,  it  is 
suggested  that  the  supplementary  readings  be  read  before  the 
chapters  of  the  text  to  which  they  are  appended.  It  is  the 
aim  of  the  author  to  mention  only  a  few  representative  read- 
ings rather  than  to  give  an  extended  bibliography. 

A  considerable  part  of  the  material  of  the  text,  and  es- 
pecially the  attempt  at  organization  of  principles  for  the 
teacher's  use,  is  the  product  of  the  author's  experience  and 
observation.  Ten  years  of  work  in  secondary  education,  in 
administration  and  teaching,  and  in  the  supervision  of  prac- 
tice teaching  has  been  the  laboratory  in  which  the  practical 
test  of  these  principles  has  been  made.  The  principles  are 
not  new,  but  are  being  applied  to-day,  though  often  uncon- 
sciously, by  the  more  progressive  and  successful  teachers  of  our 
secondary  schools. 

The  book,  excepting  the  last  four  chapters,  was  written 
several  years  ago,  and  has  in  manuscript  form  been  used  as 


PREFACE  VU 

a  text-book  in  several  institutions.  A  number  of  changes  have 
resulted.  In  the  meantime  have  appeared  the  excellent  texts 
by  Professor  Parker  and  Professor  Colvin,  but  the  author 
feels  that  the  difference  in  view  point  of  the  present  text 
justifies  offering  it  to  the  educational  public. 

Acknowledgment  must  be  made  of  obligation  to  a  number 
of  educational  writers,  notably  Professors  Thorndike,  Dewey, 
and  De  Garmo.  To  a  number  of  friends  who  have  read  the 
manuscript,  the  author  is  indebted  for  helpful  suggestions. 
Students  who  have  used  the  book  as  a  text  have  been  of  great 
assistance  in  rendering  it  usable  as  a  classroom  text.  Pro- 
fessor Alexander  Inglis,  of  Harvard  University,  has  contrib- 
uted a  wealth  of  extremely  helpful  criticism  and  suggestion. 
Finally,  the  author  renders  grateful  acknowledgment  to  his 
wife,  whose  professional  training  and  experience  as  well  as 
personal  encouragement  and  assistance  have  done  much  to 
give  the  book  any  merit  it  may  possess. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTION 

PAGE 

1.  MEANING  OF  METHOD i 

Method  is  the  way  of  doing  anything,  including  teaching.  The  "born"  teacher  and 
the  trained  teacher. 

2.  BASIS  OF  METHOD  IN  SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION   ...        5 

The  validity  of  the  principles  of  educational  psychology  constitutes  the  basis  for  the 
validity  of  the  principles  of  teaching.  The  psychology  of  adolescence  is  the  basis 
for  secondary  method.  General  vs.  special  method.  The  native  interests  of  the 
student  and  their  functioning  in  learning. 

3.  SUMMARY 9 


CHAPTER  II 

SOME  FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES   IN   LEARNING 

1.  THE  CHILD'S  EQUIPMENT 10 

Teaching  must  treat  the  child  as  a  bundle  of  native  and  acquired  tendencies  to  action. 

2.  INTEREST  AND  TEACHING n 

The  teacher  must  induce  interest  in  the  subject  matter,  even  though  the  interest  be 
indirect.  He  must  direct  the  student's  interest  into  the  most  fruitful  paths. 

3.  ATTENTION  AND  TEACHING 14 

Attention  is  an  essential  in  learning.  Passive  attention  is  the  most  favorable  for  learn- 
ing, but  is  not  always  attainable.  Active  attention  should  lead  to  secondary  passive 
attention. 

4.  ASSOCIATIVE  LEARNING 17 

Rules  for  securing  simple  associations.  Association  after  dissociation  involves  analysis 
followed  by  synthesis.  Rules  for  securing  association  after  dissociation. 

ix 


X  CONTENTS 

PAOI 

5.  THE  TRANSFER  OF  ACQUIRED  EFFICIENCY    ....      21 

The  doctrine  of  the  transfer  of  acquired  power  is  a  prominent  factor  in  curriculum 
and  instruction.  What  truth  it  possesses  lies  in  the  identity  of  the  elements  in  the 
thing  learned  and  in  that  to  be  learned.  The  principle  involved  is  association  after 
dissociation.  In  order  to  secure  transfer  of  training,  a  variety  of  instances  should 
be  made  basal  in  deriving  a  concept,  the  meaning  as  well  as  the  form  of  the  thing 
learned  should  be  emphasized,  and  a  variety  of  applications  should  be  employed. 

6.  SUMMARY 25 

CHAPTER  HI 

AIMS   IN   INSTRUCTION 

1.  EDUCATIONAL  AIMS 28 

The  seemingly  disparate  formulations  of  the  aim  of  education  are  fundamentally  agreed 
upon  five  elements.  These  are  in  terms  of  knowledge,  sympathy,  thought-power, 
ability  to  express  and  act,  and  permanence  of  character  and  attainment. 

2.  ESSENTIALS  AND  FACTORS  OF  INSTRUCTION  ....       30 

Relation  of  instruction  to  education.  Teaching  must  produce  knowledge,  thought- 
power,  sentimental  development,  efficiency,  and  permanency.  These  suggest  the 
six  fundamental  factors  of  method  in  instruction:  acquisition,  reflection,  expression- 
application,  appreciation,  drill,  and  test. 

3.  IMPORTANCE  AND  CHARACTER  OF  THE  LESSON  AIM       .       35 

It  facilitates  definiteness  and  flexibility  of  procedure.  Teacher's  aim  and  student's 
aim  are  to  a  considerable  degree  coincident,  especially  in  secondary  education.  Com- 
munity of  aim  facilitates  co-operation.  The  aim  may  be  expressed  in  terms  of  sub- 
ject matter,  as  well  as  in  terms  of  the  various  factors  of  method.  The  lesson  unit. 

4.  THE  FIVE  MODES  OF  INSTRUCTION 39 

"^The  Recitation,  Problematic,  Appreciation,  Expression-Application,  and  Laboratory 
Modes.  Relation  between  teaching  modes  and  lesson  types.  The  "formal  steps" 
of  the  lesson;  tkeir  suggestive  value  and  their  danger. 

5.  SUMMARY 41 

CHAPTER  IV 

THE   CLASS   EXERCISE 

i.  MEANING 43 

The  term  is  used  for  all  forms  of  classroom  activity,  and  means  muck  more  than  mere 
recitation.  The  class  exercise  is  the  occasion  for  the  employment  of  all  the  forms 
of  instruction. 


CONTENTS  XI 

PACK 

2.  PERSONALITY  IN  THE  CLASS  EXERCISE 45 

The  true  method  provides  opportunity  for  the  best  development  of  personality  of  both 
teacher  and  pupil.  Whatever  negates  either  is  bad  method. 

3.  THE  ATMOSPHERE  OF  THE  CLASS  EXERCISE    ....      47 

Cheerfulness  and  enthusiasm  are  positive  factors  in  instruction. 

4.  THE  CLASSROOM  ACTIVITY 48 

Activity  is  fundamental  in  learning.  Blackboard  work.  The  mood  of  expectancy. 
Distribution  of  activity  between  teacher  and  class;  between  members  of  the  class. 
The  teacher's  preparation  as  a  means  for  increasing  the  efficiency  of  class  work.  The 
"tempo"  of  the  classroom. 

5.  SUMMARY 53 

CHAPTER  V 

THE  QUESTION 

1.  ITS  FUNCTION 55 

In  teaching,  the  question  serves  not  merely  to  obtain  information  but  also  to  bring 
the  student  to  consciousness  of  a  need  and  to  stimulate  thought. 

2.  KINDS  OF  QUESTIONS 56 

Memory  question.  Analytic  questions.  Development  questions.  Comparison-con- 
trast questions.  Judgment  questions. 

3.  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  GOOD  QUESTIONING 59 

The  question  must  be  thought-provoking,  clear,  brief,  and  adapted  to  the  student. 

4.  THE  MANNER  OF  QUESTIONING 63 

i.  Questions  should  be  addressed  to  the  class,  although  answered  by  one  student.  2. 
Questions  should  be  distributed  among  the  pupils,  taking  account  of  the  students' 
ability  and  special  needs.  3.  The  teacher  should  manifest  an  interest  in  the  question. 

5.  THE  QUESTION  AS  AN  INDEX  OF  EFFICIENCY  IN  TEACHING      67 

The  number  of  questions,  and  the  distribution  of  activity  between  teacher  and  class. 

6.  THE  ANSWER 68 

The  answer  must  be  adequate  and  matured.  The  topical  recitation.  The  form  of  ex- 
pression in  the  answer. 

7.  THE  PUPIL'S  QUESTION 71 

Its  importance  and  treatment. 

8.  SUMMARY 72 


Xll  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  VI 

THE  RECITATION  MODE 

PACE 

1.  MEANING  OF  RECITATION 74 

The  recitation  as  mechanical  reciting.  The  opposite  extreme.  True  function  of  reci- 
tation. 

2.  THE  RECITATION  AS  TESTING 75 

Its  aim  is  to  insure  progress:  by  determining  faithfulness,  adequacy  of  preparation  and 
instruction,  and  appropriateness  of  material,  and  by  providing  opportunity  for  ex- 
pression and  correction.  When  is  a  lesson  adequately  prepared?  The  enforcing  of 
preparation.  The  oral  quiz,  and  its  functions.  The  examination,  its  aim  and  re- 
quirements. 

3.  THE  RECITATION  AS  DRILL 83 

Drill  is  to  render  processes  or  memories  stereotyped  and  automatic.  Applicability  of 
drill.  Its  dangers:  excess  and  insufficiency.  Relation  of  attention  to  drill.  Drill 
as  habit-forming:  initiation  and  fixation.  Drill  as  memory-forming:  learning,  re- 
tention, recall,  and  recognition.  Memory  content  must  be  deeply  impressed,  and 
widely  and  strongly  associated.  Repetition  in  drill:  its  degree  and  distribution. 
Drill  must  be  intelligent,  applied,  and  sufficient.  The  meaning  and  criticism  of 
cramming. 

4.  PROPAEDEUTIC  FUNCTION  OF  THE  RECITATION       ...      94 

Learning  as  apperception.  The  recitation  as  a  preparation  step.  The  recitation  as  a 
sole  mode  in  instruction. 

5.  SUMMARY 98 


CHAPTER  VII 

LESSON  DEVELOPMENT 

1.  LEARNING  AND  FEELING 100 

The  curriculum  is  a  system  of  situations  for'the  student.  His  meeting  of  the  situation; 
knowledge  of  it,  its  appeal  to  him,  his  response  and  expression.  The  response  is  as 
intellectual  or  as  sentimental,  as  learning  or  as  feeling.  Learning  as  informational 
or  as  problematic. 

2.  DEVELOPMENT  IN  TEACHING 102 

Nature  of  development.  Student  activity  is  fundamental  in  development.  Difficulty 
in  its  use. 


CONTENTS  Xlll 

PAGE 

3.  GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  DEVELOPMENT  INSTRUCTION    .     106 

From  known  to  unknown.  Analogy:  its  character  and  essentials.  From  simple  to 
complex;  limitations  of  the  principle.  From  concrete  to  abstract;  must  end  in 
further  concrete.  Illustration,  as  a  form  of  the  concrete.  Its  place  and  use  in  in- 
struction. Essentials  of  good  illustration:  familiarity,  accuracy,  simplicity,  sig- 
nificance. Student's  contribution  in  development.  Over-instruction. 

4.  TYPICAL  FORMS  or  DEVELOPMENT 118 

Socratic,  heuristic,  lecture.    Applicability  of  each. 

5.  THE  PLACE  OF  DEVELOPMENT  IN  THE  CLASS  EXERCISE    123 

Following  the  recitation.    Relation  to  lesson  assignment. 

6.  SUMMARY  .     .     .  126 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  PROBLEMATIC  MODE 

1.  CHARACTER  AND  FUNCTION 129 

A  problem  is  any  situation  stimulating  to  knowledge  or  thought.  Informational  and 
thought  problems.  Thought  problems  as  inductive  and  deductive. 

2.  SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION 132 

Telling,  reading,  and  discovery.  Advantages  and  dangers  of  telling.  Advantages  a»d 
dangers  in  use  of  text-book.  Value  of  discovery  as  source  of  information.  Require- 
ments of  good  telling,  of  good  text-book  use,  and  of  student's  observation.  The 
information  problem  as  simple  association. 

3.  COMPOSITION  OF  AN  ACT  OF  THOUGHT 139 

Recognition  and  formulation  of  problem,  hypothetical  solution,  reasoning  out  the  im- 
plications, and  verification.  The  thought  problem  is  a  form  of  association  after  dis- 
sociation. Induction  vs.  deduction  in  teacning. 

4.  PROCEDURE  IN  THE  THOUGHT  TYPE  OF  THE  PROBLEMATIC 

MODE 142 

i.  Recognition  and  formulation  of  the  problem.  Problem  must  be  definitely  under- 
stood by  both  teacher  and  pupil.  Inductive  and  deductive  problems.  Problems 
must  be  real,  arising  out  of  the  student's  experience  and  needs.  Meaning  of  "  reality  " 
of  problem.  The  project  method.  2.  Tentative  solution  of  the  problem.  Its  form. 
Hypothesis  must  be  a  definite  one  for  the  student  and  a  real  solution  to  the  prob- 
lem. 3.  Reasoning  out  the  implications  of  the  problem.  The  student  must  be  the 
real  thinker,  rather  than  adopt  another's  thought.  The  reasoning  must  be  sound. 
4.  Verification  of  the  hypothesis.  The  concrete  of  the  original  problem  and  that 
of  the  verification.  Relation  of  verification  to  application.  Decree  of  rigor  in  veri- 


XIV  CONTENTS 

fication,  and  attitude  of  student  toward  proof.  Verification  should  be  definitely 
formulated,  since  it  encourages  dearer  thinking  and  offers  opportunity  for  convic- 
tion. Explanation:  its  character,  function,  and  essentials.  Meaning  of  demon- 
stration. The  teacher's  place  in  the  problematic  mode. 

PACK 

5.  APPLICATION  or  THE  PROBLEMATIC  MODE  IN  TEACHING  .     163 

Its  application  and  forms  in  various  studies.    The  transfer  of  training  in  the  problem- 
atic mode.    The  place  of  problematic  procedure  in  the  class  exercise. 

6.  SUMMARY 170 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  APPRECIATION  MODE 

1.  CHARACTER  AND  FUNCTION 173 

Appreciation  as  the  sentimental  response  to  a  situation.  Aim  of  appreciation  instruc- 
tion, to  lead  to  the  most  adequate  and  helpful  response. 

2.  TYPES  AND  FORMS  OF  APPRECIATION 176 

Intellectual,  aesthetic,  and  ethical;  based  upon  the  three  types  of  sentiment.  The 
place  of  the  different  types  in  the  various  studies  of  the  curriculum. 

3.  PROCEDURE  IN  THE  APPRECIATION  MODE 177 

Based  on  creating  the  right  type  of  situation,  i.  The  teacher  must  catch  the  spirit  of 
the  situation.  2.  The  situation  must  be  made  as  real  and  vivid  as  possible,  by  sug- 
gestive imagery,  both  sensory  and  idealized.  3.  The  student  must  understand  the 
medium  of  expression  of  the  material  studied.  The  securing  of  this  understanding; 
its  method  and  limitations.  4.  An  analysis  of  the  content  is  necessary,  yet  if  over- 
done will  prevent  appreciation.  5.  The  appreciation  situation  must  be  such  as  to 
arouse  the  activity  of  the  student.  He  must  feel  it  as  one  which  has  a  personal  sig- 
nificance for  him.  Pettiness  and  artificiality  in  appreciation  instruction.  6.  Atmos- 
phere of  the  classroom  in  appreciation  instruction;  its  importance  and  control. 
The  tempo  of  appreciation. 

4.  SUMMARY 186 


CHAPTER  X 

THE   EXPRESSION-APPLICATION   MODE 

i.  CHARACTER  AND  FUNCTION 188 

Expression  and  application  are  the  student's  extension  of  the  learned  and  felt  to  further 
persons  and  objects.  Value  of  the  expression-application  mode:  it  tests  the  instruc- 
tion, readers  impressions  definite  and  permanent,  and  provides  skill  in  the  use  of 
knowledge. 


CONTENTS  XV 


2.  FORMS  OF  EXPRESSION  AND  APPLICATION 190 

Opportunity  occurs  in  almost  all  instruction.     Expression  in  English  composition. 
Application  in  laboratory,  translation,  and  exercises. 

3.  HOME  STUDY  AS  APPLICATION 194 

Not  an  independent  preparation  for  recitation.    Essentially  an  extension  and  ampli- 
fication of  the  classroom  application. 

4.  ESSENTIALS  OF  EXPRESSION  AND  APPLICATION     .     .     .     196 

Determined  by  function.    Expression  shall  be:  i,  adequate;  2,  general.    Application 
shall:  3,  immediately  follow  the  development;  4,  be  typical;  5,  intelligent;  6,  general. 

5.  THE  LESSON  ASSIGNMENT 201 

Relation  to  classroom  application.     Should  come  at  close  of  class  hour.    Denniteness 
of  assignment.     Stimulating  to  thought. 

6.  SUMMARY 205 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE   LABORATORY  MODE 

1.  CHARACTER  AND  FUNCTION 207 

Relation  to  home  study,  to  the  development  mode,  to  the  application  mode.  Five- 
fold function:  acquisition  of  knowledge  or  sentimental  experience,  application  of 
methods  of  study,  training  in  observation  and  induction,  technic  and  manual  skill, 
verification. 

2.  TYPES  OF  LABORATORY  WORK 211 

Experimental,  observational,  appreciation,  and  application.  Meaning  of  experiment, 
and  its  use  in  the  secondary  school.  School  laboratory  and  field  excursion.  De- 
scription of  results  in  observation;  by  language,  by  drawings.  Inference  from  the 
observations.  The  appreciation  laboratory  exercise.  The  application  laboratory. 

3.  ESSENTIALS  OF  LABORATORY  INSTRUCTION 216 

i.  Problem  must  be  real;  originating  in  the  classroom  work.  Definiteness  of  problem; 
in  aim  and  in  instructions.  2.  Threefold  function  of  the  teacher  in  the  laboratory: 
to  provoke  thought,  prevent  waste  of  time  and  material,  direct  to  sources.  3.  Use 
made  of  results  in  the  laboratory.  Results  should  be  definitely  thought  through, 
adequately  described,  correlated  with  the  classroom  work. 

4.  SUMMARY 220 


XVI  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XII 

STUDY  AS   SELF-TEACHING 

PAGE 

1.  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  STUDY 222 

It  develops  initiative  and  self-control.    The  wisdom  of  home  study. 

2.  TEACHING  TO  STUDY 223 

Study  is  self-teaching,  and  follows  the  methods  of  class  teaching.  Securing  the  problem 
attitude.  Getting  one's  bearings.  Use  of  sources  of  information.  Habit-forming 
and  memory-forming  in  study.  Training  pupils  to  recognize  problems,  to  formulate 
hypotheses,  to  reason  out  the  implications,  and  to  verify.  Appreciation  study  through 
understanding  of  medium  of  expression,  vividness  of  imagery,  and  judgment  forming. 
Home  study  as  application.  Physical  and  mental  conditions  for  effective  study. 

3.  SUPERVISED  STUDY 241 

Meaning  and  need  of  supervision.    Forms  of  its  administration. 

4.  SUMMARY 244 

CHAPTER  XIII 

LESSON   ORGANIZATION 

1.  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  ORGANIZATION 247 

The  modes  are  not  methods  but  the  components  of  methods.  Lesson  organization  as 
a  synthesis  of  modes. 

2.  THE  LESSON  PLAN 248 

The  planning  of  the  lesson,  involving  determining  of  aim,  selection  of  content,  organiza- 
tion of  thought,  formulation  of  pivotal  questions,  and  provision  for  expression-applica- 
tion. Importance  of  the  assignment.  The  recitation  mode  as  the  completion  of  the 
cycle.  Use  of  laboratory  mode. 

3.  SUMMARIES  IN  THE  LESSON 254 

Character  and  function  of  the  summary.    It  should  be  developed,  rather  than  dictated 


4.  REVIEW  AND  THE  REVIEW  LESSON 

Character  of  review,  involving  essentials  only,  for  p 
quency  and  forms. 

5.  SUMMARY      ..............     257 


Character  of  review,  involving  essentials  only,  for  purpose  of  organization.     Its  fre- 
quency and  forms. 


CONTENTS  XVU 

CHAPTER  XIV 

STANDARDS   AND  MEASUREMENTS   IN  INSTRUCTION 

PAGE 

1.  EFFICIENCY  IN  TEACHING 259 

Importance  of  measurement  of  results;  for  the  determination  of  students'  progress,  the 
comparison  of  the  work  of  various  classes  and  schools,  the  investigation  of  methods 
of  instruction,  and  the  discovery  of  individual  differences  and  needs. 

2.  ESSENTIALS  OF  STANDARDIZATION 263 

Objectivity,  definiteness,  absoluteness,  inclusiveness,  practicability.  Exact  measure- 
ment is  possible  only  when  there  is  an  available  standard,  when  the  thing  measured 
is  definitely  known,  and  when  the  zero  degree  of  the  quality  investigated  for  can  be 
determined.  The  aims  of  instruction  are  basal  in  the  evaluation  of  educational 
products. 

3.  TYPICAL  STANDARDS  AND  FORMS  OF  MEASUREMENT  .     .     271 

Absolute  vs.  comparative  measurements.  Various  scales  and  tests  for  elementary  and 
secondary  school  subjects.  The  principle  of  the  normal  distribution  of  abilities,  and 
its  use  as  the  basis  for  grading  of  students'  work.  The  advantages  and  limitations 
of  "scientific  grading." 

4.  THE  PRACTICAL  VALUE  OF  STANDARDIZATION  AND  MEA- 

SUREMENT IN  SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION     ....     292 

Use  of  the  standard  tests  in  secondary  education.  The  improvising  of  further  tests. 
Suggestions  for  testing:  isolation  of  factor  tested,  adaptation  of  tests,  importance  of 
uniformity  and  clarity  in  testing.  The  grading  of  classes  other  than  normal;  by 
seeking  to  distribute  the  grades  of  several  successive  classes  viewed  as  one,  and 
taking  account  of  the  grades  of  other  teachers.  Significance  of  grade  distribution 
for  classes  not  normal. 

5.  SUMMARY 306 


CHAPTER  XV 

INDIVIDUAL   AND   SOCIAL   ELEMENTS   IN   SECONDARY   INSTRUCTION 

i.  INDIVIDUAL  INSTRUCTION 309 

Its  meaning.  It  is  based  on  individual  differences.  Differences  of  environment  and 
their  utilization.  Differences  due  to  heredity:  of  thought,  of  disposition,  of  action. 
Both  idea-thinkers  and  thing-thinkers  must  be  recognized  in  instruction.  Treatmenl 
of  temperamental  differences.  Following-up  instruction;  the  classroom  application, 
the  laboratory,  the  study  hour,  the  personal  conference. 


XV111  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

2.  SOCIAL  INSTRUCTION    ...........     319 

Its  meaning.  Its  aims:  social  intelligence,  social  disposition,  social  efficiency,  social 
habit.  Social  intelligence  includes  knowledge  of  the  curriculum,  of  society,  of  the 
self.  Social  disposition  is  determined  somewhat  by  content,  but  more  by  the  sp:rit 
and  form  of  instruction.  Social  efficiency  requires  that  opportunity  for  social  action 
be  provided  in  instruction.  Social  habit,  secured  by  motivated  repetition.  The 
agencies  for  social  instruction:  the  class  exercise,  the  laboratory,  the  study  hour. 
Student  co-operation  and  teacher  leadership  in  the  'class  exercise.  Students'  part  in 
socialized  instruction:  co-operation,  direction,  participation.  The  laboratory  as  an 
opportunity  for  social  instruction.  The  study  hour. 

3.  THE  RELATION  BETWEEN  INDIVIDUAL  AND  SOCIAL  IN- 

STRUCTION  .....     ........     336 

Not  antagonistic,  but  as  phases  of  a  unity.  Socialization  of  the  individual,  and  its 
meaning  for  instruction.  Individual  and  social  instruction  as  differentiation  and 
integration. 


4.  SUMMARY 


APPENDIX 341 

Lesson  plans;  in  physical  geography,  algebra,  United  States  History,  English,  Spanish, 
and  Home  Economics. 

INDEX  i6i 


LIBRARY 
E  TFAcrEfrs  COL»  EGE 

SA   TA  ?.  Aft  DAP,  A,  CALIFORNIA 


PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTION 
i.    MEANING  OF  METHOD 

Methods  as  Ways  of  Doing  Things.  —  The  modern  busi- 
ness world,  in  its  quest  for  efficiency,  is  devoting  more  and 
more  attention  to  method.  The  test  of  business  methods  is 
being  applied  to  educational  administration,  and  the  ques- 
tion, "How  are  you  teaching?"  must  be  faced  by  the  in- 
structor as  squarely  and  as  frankly  as  by  the  administrator. 
In  its  h'teral  meaning  the  term  "method"  refers  simply  to 
a  way  or  mode  of  doing  anything.  Our  ways  of  holding  the 
book  in  reading,  of  describing  an  event  which  we  have  wit- 
nessed, or  of  persuading  a  customer  to  purchase  our  wares  — 
all  these  are  methods.  Thus  we  have  methods  of  walking, 
of  speaking,  of  studying,  and  of  instructing.  One  can  no 
more  teach  without  method  than  he  can  walk  or  speak  with- 
out muscular  activity.  In  Professor  Dewey's  words:  "The 
teacher  needs  to  recognize  that  method  covers  not  only  what 
he  intentionally  devises  and  employs  for  the  purpose  of 
mental  training,  but  also  what  he  does  without  any  conscious 
reference  to  it  —  anything  in  the  atmosphere  and  conduct  of 
the  school  which  reacts  in  any  way  upon  the  curiosity,  the 
responsiveness,  and  orderly  activity  of  children."1  The 
skilled  educator  teaching  a  "demonstration  lesson"  in  the 
teachers'  college  and  the  schoolgirl  explaining  a  problem  hi 
division  to  her  younger  sister  are  both  employing  method  in 
their  teaching,  though  differing  widely  in  efficiency  as  educa- 
tors. 

1  Dewey,  "How  We  Think,"  p.  42. 


2  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

Consciousness  in  Method. — What  causes  this  difference  in 
efficiency?  Wherein  is  the  method  of  one  superior  to  that 
of  the  other?  As  a  means  of  enabling  the  younger  child  to 
work  the  problem,  the  girl's  method  has  a  measure  of  effi- 
ciency, but  for  real  educative  service  its  value  may  be  negli- 
gible or  even  negative.  She  has  but  little  understanding  of 
the  ultimate  aim  of  the  work  and  still  less  of  the  means.  The 
skilled  educator,  on  the  other  hand,  knows  quite  definitely 
just  what  he  is  seeking  to  accomplish,  and  is  employing  wisely 
selected  and  adapted  methods  for  its  accomplishment. 
Therein  lies  his  greater  efficiency  as  an  instructor. 

A  fundamental  element  in  his  skill  is  knowledge  of  end 
and  means.  Having  his  aim  ever  in  mind,  he  is  able  at  each 
stage  in  the  process  to  employ  those  modes  of  teaching  which 
a  knowledge  of  the  child  mind  and  the  results  of  his  own  and 
others'  experience  indicate  as  the  most  serviceable  for  his 
purpose.  The  schoolgirl  relies  almost  wholly  upon  imitation, 
largely  unconscious;  the  skilled  educator's  method  is  the 
product  of  conscious  and  intelligent  selection  throughout. 

Skill  in  Method. — But  the  teacher's  skill  is  more  than 
knowledge.  In  his  long  years  of  training  he  has  carefully 
studied  the  principles  of  teaching,  has  come  to  understand 
them,  and  has  with  experiment  and  observation  put  them 
into  conscious  application  so  many  times  that  their  applica- 
tion is  now  in  a  measure  a  matter  of  habit.  He  has  made 
these  principles  of  method  his  own,  so  that  their  application 
has  become  in  a  large  measure  unconscious  and  automatic. 
Some  one  has  said  that  "sound  practice  is  sound  theory  un- 
conscious of  itself."  Otherwise  worded,  it  means  simply  this. 
Good  teaching  is  the  constant  interplay  of  theory  and  prac- 
tice. The  skilful  teacher  never  loses  sight  of  his  aims,  both 
principal  and  subordinate.  On  the  other  band,  the  con- 
stant purposive  application  of  educational  principles  in  the 
realization  of  those  aims  has  resulted  in  an  ever-increasing 
skill  in  such  application.  The  processes  of  ever  greater  com- 
plexity have  become  natural  and  automatic,  until  he  is  able 


INTRODUCTION  3 

to  realize  his  aims  with  a  high  degree  of  efficiency  because 
the  subordinate  processes  have  become  largely  automatic. 
As  the  oarsman  in  the  college  crew  must  consciously  and 
carefully  follow  the  instructions  of  the  coach  until  his  rowing 
is  accurate  without  his  thinking  of  instructions,  so  the  teacher 
can  attain  corresponding  skill  in  teaching  only  through  the 
training  resulting  from  conscious,  careful,  persistent  applica- 
tion of  educational  principles.  His  attention,  thus  released 
from  technic,  is  free  for  the  larger  consideration  of  his  task. 

It  is  just  at  this  point,  the  rendering  of  educational  proc- 
esses unconscious  and  automatic,  that  the  crucial  stage  of 
professional  training  is  encountered.  Whether  we  become 
progressive  teachers  or  fall  into  a  rut  in  our  profession  de- 
pends almost  wholly  upon  our  attitude  toward  our  method. 
It,  like  habit,  makes  a  good  servant  but  a  bad  master,  and 
the  teacher  who  can  use  good  method  in  the  intelligent  accom- 
plishment of  his  purposes,  who  can  automatically  apply  edu- 
cational principles  in  the  realization  of  ever-conscious  aims, 
will  experience  therein  not  the  depression  of  drudgery  but 
the  spiritual  exaltation  of  work.  The  danger  is  that  of  losing 
consciousness  of  purpose  and  hence  permitting  habit  alone 
to  control  procedure. 

Types  of  Teachers. — Much  has  been  said  of  the  "born" 
teacher.  Certain  it  is  that  great  differences  of  native  apti- 
tude for  teaching  exist.  It  is  the  author's  belief,  however, 
that  much  misconception  in  the  matter  exists.  In  our  obser- 
vation, most  if  not  all  so-called  "born"  teachers  owe  their 
reputation  to  two  things.  In  the  first  place,  they  are  by 
nature  unusually  sympathetic  and  observing,  and  in  their 
instruction  are  more  quick  to  detect  failure  and  to  make 
required  adjustments  before  wrong  procedure  has  more  than 
begun.  Secondly,  their  sympathy  and  enthusiasm  induce  a 
highly  responsive  mood  and  activity  of  mind  on  the  part  of 
students,  which  are  well  known  to  be  most  favorable  condi- 
tions for  learning,  whether  with  or  without  a  teacher.  Possi- 
bly, too,  they  remember  well  the  way  in  which  they  learned 


4  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

the  material,  with  its  difficulties  and  successes.  If  we  add 
to  these  elements  the  resultant  one  of  popularity,  the  author 
believes  that  we  have  the  key  to  the  success,  both  real  and 
reputed,  of  the  "born"  teacher,  or  "genius." 

A  more  real  character  in  pedagogic  caste  is  what  Professor 
De  Garmo  calls  the  artisan  teacher.  Too  many  teachers, 
because  of  narrowness  either  of  training  or  of  perspective, 
lose  sight  of  the  broader  principles  and  aims  of  education, 
and  reduce  teaching  to  an  unthinking,  unelastic  mechanism. 
They  are  sticklers  for  methodology,  but  fail  to  catch  the 
vision  of  true  education.  To  the  "artist"  teacher,  on  the 
other  hand,  method  is  but  the  means  to  an  end;  the  best 
way  of  realizing  the  ultimate  aims  of  instruction. 

For  the  first  class  of  teachers,  the  geniuses,  or,  as  Professor 
Rein  calls  them,  "teachers  by  the  grace  of  God,"  the  teach- 
ing art  is  largely  inborn,  not  acquired  by  study.  But  their 
number  is  indeed  small,  if  indeed  there  be  such.  Unhappy  is 
the  teacher  (and  still  unhappier  his  pupils)  who,  although  not 
even  an  artisan,  mistakes  himself  for  a  genius  and,  trusting 
to  inspiration,  scorns  anything  which  savors  of  method.  On 
the  other  hand,  let  us  not  sink  to  the  plane  of  the  artisan,  and 
think  of  a  study  of  teaching-method  as  an  attempt  to  take 
over  and  incorporate  certain  stereotyped  formulas  of  proce- 
dure, warranted  to  work  whenever  certain  specified  situations 
confront  us.  The  truth  is  that  no  artist  teacher  ever  employs 
exactly  the  same  method  as  his  colleague,  nor  follows  un- 
changed his  own  former  practice.  The  study  of  the  Boston 
Tea  Party  and  the  court  scene  in  "  The  Merchant  of  Venice  " 
cannot  be  taught  twice  in  exactly  the  same  way.  What  the 
true  teacher  adopts  is  the  principles  of  method;  he  adapts  his 
method  as  occasion  demands.  "Professional  training  in  edu- 
cation," says  Doctor  MacVarmel,  "must  aim  to  give  control 
of  the  principles  or  the  intellectual  methods  involved  in  prac- 
tice rather  than  the  mere  mastery  of  technic."  x  He  whose 

1  MacVannel,  "The  College  Course  in  the  Principles  of  Education," 
p.  16. 


INTRODUCTION  5 

training  gives  him  this  intelligent  control  need  have  no  fear 
of  losing  his  personality  and  becoming  a  mere  machine  in  his 
profession.  His  progress  is  assured. 

2.    BASIS  OF  METHOD  IN  SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION 

Principles  of  Method. — Do  principles  of  method  exist? 
Is  it  true  that  we  can  find  principles  which  possess  general 
validity  for  the  teaching  process,  and,  if  so,  what  are  they, 
and  where  are  they  to  be  sought?  Munch  seems  to  offer  an 
affirmative  answer.  "Method,"  he  says,  "means  that  which 
is  obtained  hi  clearly  defined  principles  by  the  consideration, 
on  the  one  hand,  of  the  laws  of  the  mental  life,  and  on  the 
other  of  the  nature  of  both  content  and  aim  of  instruction ;  it 
accordingly  has  equal  validity  for  all  instructors."  1  In  so 
far  as  these  laws  of  the  mental  life  have  validity,  the  derived 
science  of  teaching  is  established  as  an  applied  science,  not 
merely  as  an  empirically  discovered  art.  The  truth  of  this 
position  has  long  since  received  some  recognition  in  the  field 
of  elementary  school  method,  so  that  to-day  there  is  evident 
a  tendency  toward  the  other  extreme,  the  substitution  of 
formalism  in  instruction  at  the  expense  of  personality.  In 
the  domain  of  secondary  education,  however,  the  situation  is 
not  as  clear.  Educators  are  justly  in  revolt  against  any 
attempt  to  prescribe  specific  methods  or  systems  of  methods 
according  to  which  the  various  high  school  subjects  shall  be 
taught.  Just  as  methods  vary  with  teachers  and  with  classes, 
so  they  must  vary  with  subjects.  It  is  evidently  with  this 
thought  in  mind  that  one  writer  has  said:  "There  is  no  such 
thing  as  a  high  school  pedagogy.  It  is  tune  all  students  of 
secondary  education  recognize  that  we  must  speak  rather  of 
high  school  pedagogies."  2  Yet  no  one  trained  in  educational 
thought  will  question  that  there  are  certain  principles  in 
accord  with  which  the  teacher  must  proceed  if  he  would  suc- 

1  Miinch,  "Gcist  des  Lehramts,"  p.  386. 
1  Johnston,  "High  School  Education,"  p.  v. 


6  PRINCIPLES    OF  TEACHING 

ceed.  The  musical  composer  and  the  painter,  the  architect 
and  the  teacher  are  herein  similarly  situated.  The  teaching 
profession  must  carefully  distinguish  between  the  " methods" 
of  teaching  and  the  " principles  of  method."  1 

Nevertheless,  there  are  not  a  few  to  whom  "methods"  and 
"method"  are  synonymous,  and  in  their  protest  against  a 
study  of  methods  they  will  have  nothing  to  do  with  anything 
that  even  suggests  method.  Doubtless  the  chief  cause  of 
this  attitude,  which  is  especially  common  in  the  universities, 
is  the  failure  of  the  college  professor,  a  specialist  in  a  particu- 
lar field  of  science,  to  catch  the  point  of  view  of  secondary 
education.  He  thinks  of  his  science  primarily  as  a  science, 
rather  than  as  a  means  for  developing  personality;  he  is  ab- 
sorbed in  the  science  as  knowledge,  and  in  fact  so  teaches  it, 
forgetting  the  human  factor,  the  student.  Indeed,  the  most 
frequent  criticism  offered  against  the  teaching  done  by  newly 
graduated  college  students  is  that  they  carry  over  to  the 
high  school  this  point  of  view  of  their  college  study,  absorbed 
from  their  professors  in  the  university.  When  the  principles 
of  psychology  cease  to  be  true,  and  the  aim  of  education  is 
displaced  by  the  particular  aims  of  the  various  secondary 
school  studies,  each  determined  solely  by  the  content  of  the 
study,  then  and  not  until  then  will  there  cease  to  be  valid 
general  principles  of  method  in  secondary  education.  But 
that  day  is  not  yet.2 

The  Method  of  Secondary  Instruction. — In  the  typical 
school  system,  adolescent  children  are  found  in  grammar 
grades  as  well  as  high  school,  and  into  the  junior  high  school 
especially  not  a  few  preadolescents  find  their  way.  In  the 
main,  however,  the  high  school  is  to  be  thought  of  as  pecu- 
liarly the  school  of  adolescence,  and  the  psychology  of  ado- 
lescence must  accordingly  play  the  leading  part  in  secondary 

1  The  employment  of  the  word  "  method  "  for  the  great  body  of  method- 
principles,  the  science  of  method,  seems  justified  by  common  usage,  and 
will  be  followed  in  this  book. 

*A  further  objection  to  the  study  of  method,  based  upon  the  differ- 
ences of  individuals,  is  treated  in  Chapter  XV,  pages  309  ff. 


INTRODUCTION  7 

method.  While  not  fundamentally  different  from  the  psy- 
chology of  childhood,  for  adolescence  is  a  development  from 
childhood,  it  nevertheless  represents  a  later  stage  of  mental 
growth,  with  new  interests  and  new  distributions  of  interest 
and  power.  However,  not  merely  does  the  high  school  boy 
think  differently,  feel  differently,  act  differently  from  his 
brother  in  the  grades,  but  he  lives  in  a  very  different  world. 
His  environment  has  assumed  new  meanings,  and  as  inter- 
preted in  the  form  of  the  school  curriculum,  that  environ- 
ment is  differently  organized  and  differently  presented.  The 
method  of  high  school  instruction,  therefore,  with  the  psy- 
chology and  environment  of  adolescence  as  its  basis,  differs 
sufficiently  from  elementary  method  to  justify  its  special 
study  on  the  part  of  the  high  school  instructor.  Doubtless 
many  a  secondary  school  teacher  can  appreciate  the  author's 
experience  in  trying  to  apply  in  the  high  school  the  only 
method  he  could  find  treated  in  educational  works,  viz.,  ele- 
mentary method,  and  then  turning  in  disappointment  and 
disgust  from  all  method  as  such.  The  fault  lay  not  in  the 
principles  of  teaching  but  in  their  wrong  application.  It  is 
the  purpose  of  a  course  in  the  principles  of  secondary  instruc- 
tion not  merely  to  give  a  statement  and  exposition  of  those 
principles,  but  also  to  indicate  something  of  the  ways  in 
which  they  may  be  applied  in  the  work  of  teaching.  A  fre- 
quent criticism  of  high  school  teachers  is  not  that  they  are 
ignorant  of  the  principles  of  education,  but  that  they  have 
never  had  their  attention  called  to  the  practical  application 
of  those  principles.  The  aim  in  the  succeeding  chapters  will 
be  to  bring  the  theory  of  education  in  the  abstract  near 
enough  to  the  practice  of  teaching  in  the  concrete  to  enable 
the  inexperienced  teacher  to  realize  the  connection  between 
the  theory  and  the  practice.  The  text  is  intended  not  as  a 
substitute  for  experience  but  as  a  director  and  inspirer  of 
experience. 

In  realizing  the  aims  of  education  through  the  teaching 
process,  method  must  take  account  both  of  the  student  and 


8  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

of  the  subject-matter.  Of  these  the  latter,  with  the  emphasis 
upon  content,  furnishes  the  basis  for  the  study  of  special 
method,  and  therein  is  treated  more  specifically  the  applica- 
tion of  the  general  principles  in  the  teaching  of  various  studies 
of  the  curriculum.  Realizing  the  need  for  such  study,  the 
colleges  are  offering  courses  in  the  teaching  of  History,  of 
Latin,  of  Mathematics,  and  of  English.  For  our  present 
study  of  the  principles  of  teaching,  there  falls  to  us  as  our 
field  the  consideration  of  those  general  principles  themselves, 
with  the  adolescent's  intellectual  make-up  and  psychical  de- 
velopment as  our  starting-point.  The  former,  the  intellec- 
tual endowment  and  tendencies  of  the  student,  might  be  lik- 
ened to  the  forces  with  which  we  deal,  the  component  ele- 
ments in  the  dynamic  system  of  learning,  feeling,  and  acting. 
All  that  the  youth  thinks,  all  his  attitudes  toward  the  world 
about  him,  all  his  activities  are  determined  by  his  interests  and 
tendencies,  and  his  educational  development  is  but  the  unfold- 
ing of  these  under  the  influence  of  the  environment,  whether 
natural  or  man-made.  The  teacher  soon  learns  that  interests 
are  not  to  be  created  or  supplied,  but  that,  actually  or  poten- 
tially, their  list  is  already  complete  before  the  student's  name 
is  entered  upon  the  class  roll.  These  are  the  basis  of  the 
student's  self-activity,  and  through  these  alone  can  the 
teacher  gain  access  to  the  inner  precincts  of  the  self  for  the 
influencing  and  directing  of  its  development.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  instructor  realizes  that  in  the  functioning  of  these 
tendencies,  as  the  child  mind  develops,  certain  principles 
hold,  and  with  these  all  educational  efforts  must  be  in  accord. 
The  laws  of  thinking,  of  feeling,  of  acting  are  pretty  well 
established,  and  he  who  would  direct  the  learning  process 
may  not  ignore  the  laws  of  learning.  Upon  these  two  foun- 
dation-stones— the  adolescent  fund  of  tendencies,  both  native 
and  acquired,  and  the  functioning  of  these  in  learning — we 
must  build  our  superstructure  of  secondary  method.  Getting 
the  view-point  of  the  student  and  directing  our  procedure 
accordingly  is  the  first  essential  in  teaching. 


INTRODUCTION 


3.    SUMMARY 

Success  in  instruction  involves  an  understanding  of  the 
aim  and  method  of  instruction,  and  skill  in  the  application  of 
method.  The  true  teacher  is  the  one  who  thus  intelligently 
adapts  procedure  to  aim,  recognizing  and  employing  the  prin- 
ciples upon  which  method  must  be  based. 

Method  is  not  a  slavish  adherence  to  fixed  rules  of  proce- 
dure, but  is  the  application  of  established  educational  princi- 
ples to  the  work  of  teaching. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Examine  several  books  on  special  methods  and  see  if  they  seem 
to  advocate  method  or  methods. 

2.  Some  teachers  trust  to  inspiration  alone  in  matters  of  method. 
Into  what  dangers  does  such  teaching  fall  ? 

3.  Would  it  be  best  for  the  inexperienced  teacher  to  begin  by  merely 
imitating  some  good  teacher,  and  to  trust  to  experience  to  produce 
improvement  ? 

4.  Is  the  difference  between  elementary  and  secondary  teaching 
mainly  a  difference  of  method  or  of  methods? 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READINGS 

Dewey's  article  on  "  Method,"  in  Monroe's  "  Cyclopedia  of  Education." 
Suzzallo's  article  on  "Method  of  Recitation,"  in  Monroe's  "Cyclo- 
pedia of  Education." 
De  Garmo,  "Interest  and  Education,"  chap.  VIII. 


CHAPTER  II 

SOME  FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES  IN  LEARNING 
i.    THE  CHILD'S  EQUIPMENT 

Native  and  Acquired  Traits. — The  teacher  must  start  with 
the  child  as  he  finds  him.  When  the  pupil  enters  upon  his 
high  school  career,  he  brings  with  him  fairly  definite  and  pre- 
sumably adequate  equipment.  He  has,  or  rather  is,  a  ner- 
vous system  which  is  a  storehouse  of  tendencies  and  experi- 
ences, both  racial  and  individual.  At  birth  he  inherited  a 
complex  of  instincts  and  native  capacities,  and  during  the 
course  of  his  home  and  school  life  those  instincts  have  been 
developed  and  directed,  those  capacities  have  been  partially 
realized. 

Strictly  speaking,  the  pupil  is  essentially  a  bundle  of 
activity,  of  native  and  acquired  tendencies  to  action.  His 
body  is  a  veritable  storehouse  of  energy,  demanding  outlet  in 
physical  activity,  and  revolting  against  restraint.  His  in- 
stinctive curiosity  and  impulse  to  know  and  understand 
prompt  him  to  extend  his  knowledge  in  the  fields  into  which 
his  elementary  school  training  has  introduced  him.  With 
the  development  and  exercise  of  the  social  instinct  he  de- 
mands opportunity  for  the  realization  of  his  social  nature. 
Thus,  the  basis  for  all  teaching  is  the  activity  of  the  child. 
All  that  teaching  can  do  is  to  induce  and  direct  that  activity, 
and  the  key-note  of  our  study  of  teaching  method  must  con- 
stantly be  the  self-activity  of  the  student.  If  I  would  have 
a  strong  arm,  I  must  move  that  arm  myself.  No  amount  of 
massaging  or  manipulation  by  another  will  avail  unless  I 
myself  actively  participate.  In  the  school  world,  as  in  the 
physician's  office,  intellectual  massaging  will  never  produce 
power.  The  child  must  be  the  actor,  and  the  starting-point 


SOME   FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES   IN  LEARNING        II 

of  the  teacher's  efforts  must  be  these  dynamic  tendencies  of 
the  child. 

Individual  Differences. — But  neither  by  native  endow- 
ment nor  by  subsequent  training  are  all  children  alike.  Due 
to  differences  of  hereditary  influence,  the  various  instincts 
differ  in.  form  and  strength,  the  various  capacities  differ  in 
degree.  Different  environments  and  training  have  in  turn 
accentuated  differences  of  heredity,  and  have  produced  infinite 
variations  in  their  development.  Moreover,  all  these  and 
other  factors  unite  to  determine  children's  future  careers  and 
their  consequent  individual  needs.  If  we  are  to  personalize 
our  instruction,  and  to  teach  pupils  rather  than  subjects,  the 
teaching  process  must  ever  be  adaptive.  Without  losing 
sight  of  the  general  principles  upon  which  all  teaching  must 
rest,  we  must  adapt  the  application  of  those  principles  to  the 
individual  traits  and  needs  of  our  pupils. 

2.    INTEREST  AND  TEACHING 

Importance  of  Interest  in  Teaching. — For  a  century,  and 
with  ever-increasing  earnestness,  educational  writers  have 
been  urging  upon  teachers  the  vital  importance  of  an  appeal 
to  the  interests  of  the  student.  Mr.  Dooley's  declaration 
that  "it  don't  make  any  difference  what  you  eddicate  a  boy 
with  so  long  as  it's  something  he  don't  like"  is  more  practised 
than  preached,  and  the  practice  itself  is  on  the  wane.  The 
youth  whose  chief  interest  is  in  motors  and  aeronautics  is  not 
likely  to  experience  enthusiasm  over  the  study  of  classical 
philology,  nor  will  his  attempts  to  master  the  latter  be  nearly 
so  effectual  as  the  same  degree  of  energy  expended  upon  the 
applications  of  physical  science.  Moreover,  in  his  study  of 
either,  he  is  entering  what  is  to  him  an  unexplored  region. 
All  is  comparatively  new  and  strange,  and  unless  he  is  pro- 
vided with  a  guide-book,  not  to  do  his  seeing  for  him  but  to 
direct  his  eyes  to  the  things  worth  seeing,  much  energy  will 
be  wasted  and  many  valuable  lessons  will  go  unlearned. 


12  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

The  Inducing  of  Interest. — Thus  the  teacher  has  a  twofold 
function.  First,  we  say,  he  must  induce  interest  in  the  school 
work.  But  in  terms  of  classroom  instruction,  what  does  this 
mean?  And  just  how  is  it  to  be  done?  In  the  first  place, 
the  teacher  must  so  present  the  material  of  instruction  that 
it  will  offer  the  student  a  real  problem,  one  that  has  a  direct 
and  obvious  function  in  his  life,  and  appeals  to  him  as  worth 
while.  It  is  not  enough  that  the  teacher  know  it  to  be  worth 
while,  although  this  is  necessary,  since  a  what's-the-use  spirit 
on  the  teacher's  part  produces  a  no-use  attitude  in  the  pupil. 
To  the  student  himself  the  appeal  must  be  real  and  conscious. 
Each  topic,  each  problem  must  be  so  opened  to  him  as  to  fit 
a  need  in  his  life,  a  need  of  which  he  may  hitherto  have  been 
unconscious,  but  which  he  now  feels  to  be  real.  This  is  not 
preaching  a  doctrine  of  "soft  pedagogics."  True  pedagogics 
are  never  "soft,"  but  are  founded  upon  the  exhilaration  of 
work,  purposive  and  earnest  work,  and  neither  drudgery  nor 
trifling.  What  is  needed  in  life  to-day  is  not  a  readiness  to 
expend  our  energies  upon  what  appeals  to  us  as  useless,  but 
the  ability  to  recognize  the  useful  when  we  meet  it,  and  hav- 
ing recognized  it  to  make  it  our  own.  Tom  Sawyer,  selling 
to  his  playmates  the  privilege  of  whitewashing  the  fence,  was 
exercising  a  pedagogical  talent.  But  the  teacher  must  do 
more  than  sell  privileges  and  take  pay  in  apple-cores.  He 
must  be  sure  that  the  thing  to  be  done  is  really  worth  to  the 
student  the  effort  involved.  Too  often  it  is  not  worth  while, 
and  yet  oftener  the  worth  is  not  clear  in  the  teacher's  mind. 

Yet  it  must  not  be  imagined  that  the  student  will  always 
be  quick  to  appreciate  the  value  of  all  that  the  curriculum 
offers.  The  value  to  him  of  his  Latin  conjugation  or  of  the 
scientific  name  of  the  dandelion  may  not  be  fully  obvious 
when  first  encountered.  In  practically  all  cases,  however, 
the  skilful  teacher  will  find  means  to  take  over  interest  from 
some  related  topic  already  interesting,  or  even,  by  the  con- 
tagion of  his  own  interest,  induce  an  interest  in  the  thing  in 
hand.  In  the  words  of  Professor  De  Garmo,  "we  must 


SOME   FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES   IN   LEARNING        13 

arouse  interest  in  the  subjects  now  uninteresting,  not  alone 
through  charm  and  skill,  but  also  by  showing  how  these  sub- 
jects contribute  to  ends  in  which  interest  is  already  aroused. 
This  is  interest  by  induction ;  it  is  more  potent  in  higher  than 
in  lower  grades.  It  should  be  possible  to  arouse  the  interest 
of  a  high  school  student  in  any  subject  that  is  plainly  contrib- 
utory to  the  purposes  he  has  already  formed.  Though  such 
an  induced  interest  might  be  called  indirect,  yet  there  is  a 
good  prospect  that  it  will  become  direct  and  independent, 
provided  the  subject  is  well  taught."  l 

Finally,  and  perhaps  most  important,  in  the  inducing  of 
interest,  appeal  must  be  made  to  the  active  participation  of 
the  student.  That  interests  us  most  in  which  we  have  a  real 
part;  in  which  we  really  do  something.  Call  upon  the  unin- 
terested boy  to  come  and  help  you  adjust  the  apparatus,  and 
the  truth  of  what  we  have  just  said  will  need  no  further  veri- 
fication. The  wise  teacher  will  find  opportunities,  or  if  neces- 
sary make  them,  for  giving  his  students  an  active  part  in 
what  is  going  on. 

Thus  the  induction  of  interest  may  well  be  sought  in  these 
four  ways:  give  a  real  problem,  be  interested,  build  upon 
existing  interests,  and  provide  for  participative  activity. 

The  Directing  of  Interest. — The  second  function  of  the 
teacher  is  to  direct  the  student  in  the  pursuit  of  his  interests. 
Entering  a  strange  territory,  the  curriculum  of  the  secondary 
school,  and  knowing  but  little  of  the  destination  to  which  the 
various  paths  lead,  the  pupil  is  almost  as  likely  to  choose  the 
wrong  path  as  the  right  one.  His  choice  will  be  governed  by 
merely  immediate  interests,  since  ultimate  ones  cannot  func- 
tion. Many  a  topic  in  history,  science,  or  English,  poten- 
tially of  absorbing  interest,  is  lost  to  the  pupil  because  he 
fails  to  notice  its  significance.  Here  he  needs  the  guidance 
of  the  teacher,  who  knows  the  field  and  whose  judgment  is 
based  upon  experience  and  training.  The  word  to  the  in- 
structor, therefore,  would  be  this.  First  determine  the  prob- 

1  De  Garmo,  "  Interest  and  Education,"  p.  120. 


14  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

lems  and  situations  that  are  vital  to  the  student;  those  which 
are  of  real  value  to  him,  especially  in  view  of  his  past  experi- 
ences and  present  interests.  Then,  by  giving  due  prominence 
to  those  elements  and  their  value  to  the  student,  lead  him  on 
through  his  present  interests  to  the  solution  of  the  new  prob- 
lems and  reaction  to  the  new  situations.  In  this  guidance 
the  teacher  must  inspire  his  charge  to  co-operative  activity, 
he  must  lead  rather  than  carry,  and  must  show  the  way  only 
when  the  youth  is  unable  to  find  it  for  himself.  He  must  not 
forget  that  it  is  in  the  finding  and  not  the  having  found,  in 
the  process  rather  than  the  product,  that  the  value  of  instruc- 
tion is  realized. 

3.    ATTENTION  AND  TEACHING 

Importance  of  Attention  in  Teaching. — It  is  but  to  deduce 
a  corollary  from  the  above  to  say  that  we  cannot  teach  with- 
out attention,  for  attention  and  interest  are  inseparable. 
Not  a  few  psychologists  employ  the  terms  interchangeably. 
"The  term  'attention,'"  says  Miss  Calkins,  "is  a  psychologi- 
cal synonym  of  the  expression  'interest.'  To  be  attended  to 
means  precisely  to  be  interesting."  x  The  lecturer  who  can- 
not hold  the  attention  of  his  audience  is  one  whose  lecture 
does  not  interest  them.  The  teacher  who  declares,  "I  know 
that  I  could  interest  my  class  if  they  would  only  pay  atten- 
tion!" is  mistaken  in  her  diagnosis  of  the  situation,  except 
perhaps  that  the  pupils  find  something  else  so  much  more 
interesting  than  the  lesson  that  they  choose  the  former  unless 
forced  to  refrain.  If  one  would  have  his  class  truly  attentive, 
he  must  interest  them. 

Attention  involves  the  reinforcement  of  one  idea  at  the 
expense  of  other  ideas,  which  are  accordingly  inhibited.  But 
this  reinforcement, and  this  inhibition  are  not  always  easy. 
There  are  varying  degrees  of  appeal,  both  of  the  one  idea  to 
be  reinforced  and  of  the  others  to  be  inhibited.  The  former 

1  Calkins,  "  Introduction  to  Psychology,"  p.  137. 


SOME   FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES   IN   LEARNING         15 

may  have  only  an  indirect  interest,  while  the  latter  may,  for 
various  reasons,  be  highly  insistent  and  irrepressible.  Ac- 
cordingly, we  find  wide  differences  of  degree  of  effort  in 
attention,  ranging  from  the  comparative  ease  of  passive  or 
primary  attention  to  the  greater  stress  of  active  or  secondary 
attention.  The  former  is  necessarily  more  complete  and  con- 
centrated, and  what  is  learned  by  passive  attention  makes 
a  deeper  and  more  lasting  impression.  However,  in  school 
work  it  is  usually  unattainable.  At  best,  the  subject-matter 
has  usually  only  an  indirect  appeal,  and  the  pupil's  attention 
is  rendered  only  through  effort. 

Not  only  in  the  school  but  in  later  life  the  ability  to  give 
intensive  and  sustained  attention  is  essential  for  the  highest 
efficiency.  The  school-child  or  the  professional  man  who  is 
able  to  concentrate  his  mind  upon  a  single  idea  or  line  of 
thought  is  the  one  who  will  really  accomplish  things.  This 
ability  is  largely  the  product  of  training.  Teachers  have 
always  realized  the  importance  of  attention  as  a  condition  in 
discipline:  too  little  we  recognize  the  demand  for  its  training 
as  a  part  of  every  child's  right  and  every  teacher's  duty  in 
view  of  the  demands  of  post-scholastic  life. 

The  Securing  of  Attention. — To  establish  the  importance 
of  attention  no  further  proof  is  demanded.  The  question 
rather  is  how  the  teacher  shall  secure  it,  and  to  this  the  an- 
swer has  largely  been  implied  in  the  foregoing  paragraphs. 
From  what  has  been  said,  it  must  be  inferred  that  the  prime 
condition  is  interest,  and  the  rules  for  inducing  and  directing 
interest  apply  with  equal  validity  to  attention.  To  these, 
however,  some  supplementary  suggestions  may  well  be  added. 

Since  much  of  the  content  of  school  instruction  has  only 
a  mediate  appeal  to  the  pupil,  or  its  real  interest  is  not  imme- 
diately evident  to  him,  active  attention  must  be  employed. 
This  involves,  as  we  have  seen,  the  reinforcement  of  the  one 
idea  and  the  inhibition  or  neglect  of  others.  For  the  accom- 
plishment of  the  latter  mere  prohibitions  are  of  little  avail. 
We  must  not  say  to  our  class,  "Now,  don't  think  of  so-and-so 


1 6  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

and  so-and-so,"  for  in  so  doing  we  but  reinforce  rather  than 
inhibit  thought  where  it  is  not  wanted.  Rather  we  must 
seek  to  prevent  these  ideas  coming  into  consciousness  at  all. 
The  chief  function  of  classroom  management  is  to  prevent 
the  occurrence  or  existence  of  conditions  which  might  attract 
attention  to  themselves  and  away  from  the  topic  of  the  in- 
struction. Thus,  all  such  distracting  influences  as  disorder, 
public  disciplining  in  class,  physical  or  mental  discomfort, 
and  hostility  toward  teacher  or  school  are  negative  forces  in 
teaching  largely  because  they  insistently  demand  attention 
to  themselves.  So  instead  of  saying  "  Don't  think  about 
those  things,"  we  must  say  "Think  about  this  thing,"  and 
must  see  to  it  that  there  is  some  definite  and  attractive  fea- 
ture of  it  pushed  forward  for  attention  to  centre  upon.  Posi- 
tive incentives  avail  infinitely  more  than  do  negative  ones. 

Thus,  most  of  our  teaching  must  start  with  active  atten- 
tion. But  it  must  not  stop  there.  The  content  of  instruction 
must  have  in  it  something  of  real  value  and  ultimate  appeal 
to  the  pupil  if  it  is  to  render  him  lasting  service.  We  must 
build  up  our  active  or  secondary  attention  into  a  secondary 
passive  or  derived  primary  attention.  That  is,  we  must 
strive  to  bring  the  student  to  such  an  understanding  of  the 
content  that  its  value  to  him  is  more  clearly  seen  and  imme- 
diately felt.  That  which  he  attended  to  merely  as  means 
to  end  must  ultimately  hold  his  attention  because  of  what  it 
really  is  to  him.  Otherwise,  it  slips  from  his  mind  as  soon 
as  the  end  to  which  it  was  a  means  has  ceased  to  hold 
him. 

What  we  have  said  must  not  be  interpreted  to  justify  a 
weak  do-as-you-please  attitude  on  the  teacher's  part.  School- 
children are  immature  and  inexperienced,  and  need  both 
the  reinforcement  of  authority  and  the  guidance  of  broader 
experience.  Often,  therefore,  we  must  insist  upon  attention. 
"You  must  attend"  is  an  appropriate  phrase  in  the  school 
when  "Let's  consider  so-and-so"  proves  inadequate.  But 
let  us  as  soon  as  possible  advance  from  the  first  to  the  second, 


SOME  FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES  IN  LEARNING        17 

from  external  authority  to  self-conirol,  from  teacher  activity 
to  student  activity,  from  active  to  secondary  passive  atten- 
tion. 

4.    ASSOCIATIVE  LEARNING1 

Nature  of  Association. — In  the  course  of  our  every-day 
life  all  our  experiences,  whether  simple  or  complex,  come  to 
us  as  discrete  units,  one  by  one.  But  if  they  are  to  have 
any  significance  for  us,  if  we  are  to  learn,  associations  between 
experiences  must  be  set  up.  The  child  will  never  learn  to 
walk  save  by  associating  sensations  of  eye  and  pressure  with 
muscular  movements.  He  will  never  learn  the  capital  of 
England  except  by  the  association  of  the  ideas  "capital  of 
England"  and  "London."  He  will  never  form  the  habit 
of  saying  "Thank  you"  unless  there  is  set  up  an  association 
between  the  act  and  the  situation  which  demands  it. 

It  is  a  matter  of  common  observation  that  ideas  or  acts 
which  have  once  occurred  together  tend  thereafter  to  recur 
together:  that  the  mind  naturally  forms  associations  of  ele- 
ments that  have  once  fallen  together  whether  through  chance 
or  relationship.  Naturally,  then,  upon  the  teacher  devolves 
the  task  of  controlling  these  associations:  of  setting  up  and 
encouraging  desirable  associations  and  preventing  undesirable 
ones.  Teaching  the  child  the  capital  of  England  involves 
the  securing  of  such  conditions  that  it  will  be  associated  with 
London  and  not  with  Paris  or  Berlin.  This  control  of  condi- 
tions for  the  formation  of  associations  of  thought,  of  feeling, 
and  of  action,  constitutes  by  far  the  major  part  of  the  teach- 
ing process. 

Securing  and  Controlling  Associations. — The  rules  for 
controlling  the  conditions  of  association,  though  wide  their 
application,  are  fundamentally  the  two  implied  in  the  pre- 

1  Possibly  the  best  discussion  of  association  and  dissociation  in  their 
educational  bearings  is  that  by  Thorndike  in  his  "Elements  of  Psychol- 
ogy," chaps.  XIII  and  XIV,  and  his  "Principles  of  Teaching,"  chaps. 
VIII  and  IX.  Our  own  discussion  follows  in  the  main  Thorndike's  treat- 
ment of  the  topic. 


1 8  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

ceding  paragraph.  First:  determine  how  you  wish  the  ele- 
ments to  be  associated,  and  see  to  it  that  the  student  encoun- 
ters them  in  that  arrangement,  repeatedly  and  invariably. 
Second:  once  the  association  is  formed,  reinforce  it  by  encour- 
agement, making  it  worth  while  to  the  pupil.  And,  nega- 
tively stated,  discourage  the  undesired  association  by  mak- 
ing it  unprofitable. 

In  a  Latin  class  these  rules  were  applied  in  this  way.  The 
class  had  placed  upon  the  board  a  portion  of  a  verb  conjuga- 
tion. As  soon  as  each  pupil's  work  had  been  considered,  it 
was  left  upon  the  board  if  correct;  but  if  incorrect  it  was 
erased,  and  the  correct  form,  written  three  times,  was  sub- 
stituted by  the  student.  Thus  the  correct  association  was 
allowed  constantly  to  establish  itself  in  the  minds  of  the 
pupils  during  the  remainder  of  the  hour,  the  incorrect  one 
was  removed  as  a  possibility;  the  former  was  encouraged,  the 
latter  discouraged. 

A  chemistry  instructor  wished  to  teach  his  class  the  lesson 
that  seemingly  trifling  differences  in  composition  are  impor- 
tant to  the  chemist.  Instructing  his  class  to  treat  a  small 
quantity  of  KC1  with  H2SO4,  he  set  out  on  the  supply  table, 
in  addition  to  the  H2SO4,  bottles  of  both  KC1  and  KC1O3. 
From  the  successful  experiments  of  those  who  were  exact, 
and  the  violent  chemical  action  and  broken  apparatus  of 
those  who  used  KC1O3,  the  class  learned  the  lesson  of  exact- 
ness. The  instructor  had  so  arranged  his  conditions  that 
accuracy  became  strongly  associated  with  chemical  proce- 
dure, and  impressed  the  lesson  by  encouraging  the  desired 
and  discouraging  the  undesired  associations. 

Association  after  Dissociation. — The  associations  of  which 
we  have  been  speaking  were  of  the  simple,  immediate  type, 
in  which  the  association  was  of  elements  taken  as  they  pre- 
sented themselves,  unchanged  by  any  preliminary  mental 
activity.  Not  all  association,  however,  is  of  this  type. 
"The  truth  is,"  says  Professor  James,  "that  experience  is 
trained  by  both  association  and  dissociation,  and  that  psy- 


SOME   FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES   IN   LEARNING        1 9 

chology  must  be  writ  both  in  synthetic  and  analytic  terms."  l 
On  a  higher  intellectual  plane  and  involving  a  more  complex 
mental  functioning  than  the  other  is  the  type  known  as  asso- 
ciation after  disjunction.  A  concrete  illustration  may  render 
explanation  easier.  The  student  of  geometry  is  studying 
about  polyhedral  angles.  He  is  told  that  the  corner  of  a 
box,  the  apex  of  a  square  pyramid,  and  the  apex  of  a  hexagonal 
pyramid  are  such  angles.  By  a  process  of  analysis,  he  ab- 
stracts the  feature  common  to  all  these  cases,  and  then  syn- 
thetically builds  up  the  concept  of  polyhedral  angle.  Thus 
we  have  a  case  of  analysis  followed  by  synthesis,  or  associa- 
tion based  upon  dissociation. 

All  stages  of  learning,  and  especially  the  more  advanced, 
abound  in  mental  activity  of  this  type.  Whenever  the  pupil> 
confronted  by  a  series  of  situations  having  a  common  factor, 
analyzes  out  that  factor  and  forms  therefrom  a  new  and  uni- 
tary concept,  distinct  from  the  particular  instances  in  which 
that  factor  occurred,  the  process  is  that  of  association  afte* 
disjunction,  or  association  based  upon  dissociation.  In  this 
the  distinguishing  feature  is  the  analytic  activity,  which  is 
almost  or  wholly  absent  from  the  simple  association.  It  is 
this  process  of  analysing  situations  into  components,  and  the 
recognition  of  the  identity  of  elements  in  situations,  which  gives 
it  its  superiority  over  simple  association  as  a  learning  activity. 

All  reasoning  is  based  upon  association  after  analysis. 
When  the  student  concludes  from  the  form  of  a  mound  that 
it  is  of  glacial  origin,  he  first  analyzes  out  from  the  total  situa- 
tion those  features  which  he  has  found  to  be  common  to  and 
characteristic  of  glacial  mounds,  and  by  association  concludes 
glacial  formation  for  the  mound  before  him.  His  demon- 
stration of  the  proposition  that  the  bisector  of  an  angle  bisects 
the  subtended  arc  is  based  upon  analysis  of  the  qualities  of 
the  bisector  of  the  angle  and  of  that  of  the  arc,  and  the  in- 
ference from  the  one  to  the  other  based  upon  the  common 
essential  element  in  both. 

1  James,  "Psychology,"  vol.  I,  p.  487. 


20  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

What  is  the  teacher's  function  in  securing  this  dissociation- 
association  activity?  What  are  the  conditions  under  which 
it  can  best  occur?  Obviously,  the  rules  which  have  already 
been  given  for  simple  association  apply  with  equal  validity 
for  the  association  which  follows  the  disjunction.  For  the 
dissociative  activity  the  following  suggestions  are  offered. 
In  the  first  place,  the  cases  from  which  the  dissociation  is  to 
occur  must  be  such  that  the  element  to  be  dissociated  is  fairly 
conspicuous  and  easily  distinguishable.  Here  the  teacher 
must  realize  that  what  appears  prominent  enough  to  one  who 
has  already  noticed  it  may  easily  escape  the  first  glance  of 
another  person.  It  naturally  follows  that  the  conspicuity  of 
the  element  can  be  much  enhanced  by  directing  the  attention 
to  it  as  the  various  cases  are  studied  and  compared.  To 
build  up  the  concept  of  the  representative  basis  for  taxation, 
it  would  be  unwise  to  choose  instances  wherein  the  applica- 
tion of  the  principle  is  interwoven  with  a  variety  of  other 
complicating  elements.  In  the  second  place,  the  cases  upon 
which  the  dissociation  is  to  be  made  should  involve  different 
combinations  of  the  element  to  be  analyzed  out.  For  exam- 
ple, using  again  the  illustration  of  the  polyhedral  angle,  it 
would  be  far  better  to  derive  the  concept  from  such  cases  as 
the  apex  of  a  square  pyramid,  the  corner  of  a  cube,  and  the 
apex  of  a  hexagonal  pyramid  than  from  several  trihedral 
angles  only.  A  third  rule  tells  us  that,  as  soon  as  the  disso- 
ciation is  once  started,  the  dissociated  element  should  at  once 
be  associated  to  some  name  or  symbol.  The  derivation  of 
the  concept  of  the  polyhedral  angle  cannot  proceed  far  unless 
the  name  for  the  concept  is  early  introduced.  Thus,  the 
name  serves  to  focalize  the  attention  in  the  analysis,  and  to 
render  the  concept  definite  and  usable.  Finally,  the  abstrac- 
tion should  be  rendered  permanent  and  its  implications 
broadened  by  its  application  to  further  concrete  cases.  When 
the  student  has  gamed  the  concept  of  representative  taxa- 
tion or  polyhedral  angle,  he  should  apply  that  concept  to 
instances  other  than  those  from  which  it  was  derived. 


SOME   FUNDAMENTAL   PRINCIPLES   IN   LEARNING        21 

In  the  present  section  we  have  endeavored  merely  to  give 
a  general  statement  of  the  principles  of  association  and  dis- 
sociation. In  subsequent  chapters  we  shall  see  how  most  of 
our  teaching  involves  an  application  of  these  principles.  In 
the  study  of  the  recitation  mode  we  shall  find  that  both 
memory-forming  and  habit-forming  are  essentially  types  of 
simple  association.  In  the  discussion  of  the  problematic 
mode  it  will  appear  that  the  finding-out  problem  and  the 
thinking-out  problem  are  based  upon  simple  association  and 
association  after  disjunction  respectively.  The  teaching  of 
appreciation,  as  we  shall  see,  must  recognize  the  association 
of  feelings  with  ideas,  and  the  importance  and  conditions  of 
the  control  of  such  associations.  In  the  expression-applica- 
tion mode  and  the  laboratory  mode,  various  applications  are 
made  of  all  the  laws  of  association  and  dissociation.  To  no 
inconsiderable  degree,  the  problem  of  the  succeeding  section 
is  related  to  that  of  the  present  one. 

5.    THE  TRANSFER  OF  ACQUIRED  EFFICIENCY 

The  Basal  Principle  in  Transference. — Until  compara- 
tively recently  it  was  imagined  by  many  that  the  mind  con- 
sists of  certain  general  powers  or  faculties,  such  as  memory, 
reasoning,  and  imagination,  and  that  the  training  of  one  of 
these  faculties  upon  one  form  of  content  would  constitute  a 
training  of  it  for  other  more  or  less  dissimilar  content.  For 
example,  it  was  thought  that  the  training  of  the  reasoning 
power  in  geometry  would  effect  its  training  for  science  or 
history  or  even  for  the  every-day  reasoning  of  the  commercial 
world.  In  a  similar  way,  examples  of  supposed  transference 
of  training  might  be  multiplied :  perception  of  Latin  verb  end- 
ings leading  to  perception  of  characteristics,  memory  for 
German  genders  leading  to  memory  for  historical  chronology, 
imagination  in  geometry  leading  to  imagination  in  English 
composition.  Thus  accuracy,  neatness,  promptness,  regular- 
ity, and  the  entire  list  of  school  virtues  could,  it  was  sup- 


22  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

posed,  be  so  developed  in  the  school  as  to  function  in  the 
home,  the  shop,  the  street,  or  adult  society  generally.  Pre- 
vailing conceptions  not  of  curriculum  alone  but  of  instruction 
as  well  were  based  upon  this  assumption  of  the  transference 
of  training.  So  deeply  was  the  belief  rooted  in  educational 
procedure  that  despite  various  and  repeated  attacks  upon  it 
by  students  of  education  and  psychology  it  is  even  to-day 
implicitly  basal  in  curriculum  and  method  in  schools  and 
colleges. 

Possibly  its  tenacity  of  life  is  due  in  part  to  a  measure  of 
truth  which  conservative  opinion  dislikes  to  abandon  and 
which  recent  investigation  seems  to  confirm.  What  is  that 
truth,  if  truth  it  be,  and  what  its  significance  for  methods  of 
Instruction?  The  limited  scope  of  this  book  precludes  more 
than  brief  and  somewhat  general  answer  to  these  questions, 
and  especially  to  the  former.1  Psychologically  speaking, 
learning  involves  the  forming  of  a  connection  between  a  situ- 
ation and  a  response.  Some  concrete  examples  may  assist 
us  in  our  interpretation.  In  learning  the  factoring  of  a2  —  b2, 
the  gender  of  Klugheit,  or  the  typewriting  of  the  word  and, 
the  situation  involves  the  recognition  of  the  expression  a2—b2, 
the  word  Klugheit,  or  the  word  and,  and  connected  as  re- 
sponse to  it  the  conscious  want  of  the  factors  of  the  expres- 
sion, the  corresponding  gender,  or  the  appropriate  manipula- 
tion of  typewriter  keys.  Simply  illustrated,  the  transfer 
problem  might  in  this  case  be,  Does  the  training  in  the  fac- 
toring of  a2 — b2  assist  in  learning  to  factor  x2  —  y2  and  a3  —  b3? 
Does  the  learning  of  the  gender  of  Klugheit  assist  in  the 
learning  of  the  gender  of  Schonheit?  Does  the  skill  in  type- 
writing and  facilitate  the  learning  to  typewrite  for?  If  the 
answers  be  affirmative  in  the  above  cases,  with  seemingly 
very  similar  content  for  the  transference,  how  far  does  the 

1 A  better  statement  of  Thorndike's  view  is  to  be  found  in  his  "  Edu- 
cational Psychology,"  vol.  II.  A  different  point  of  view  is  that  taken  by 
Judd  in  his  "Psychology  of  High  School  Subjects,"  chap.  XVII.  Starch's 
"Educational  Psychology,"  chaps.  XIII  and  XIV,  gives  possibly  the  best 
general  exposition  of  present-day  opinion  on  the  subject. 


SOME  FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES   IN  LEARNING        23 

training  carry  over  into  more  dissimilar  situations  ?  In  most 
of  our  learning,  the  composition  of  the  situation  is  very  com- 
plex; more  so,  in  fact,  than  is  commonly  realized.  More- 
over, seemingly  similar  situations  may  really  be  similar  in 
only  a  few  of  their  components,  dissimilar  in  other  and  vital 
points.  Conversely,  seemingly  dissimilar  situations  may  be 
dissimilar  in  but  a  few  of  their  elements,  and  similar  in  the 
others.  It  is  on  this  identity  of  elements  that  the  truth  of 
the  transferrence  of  training  depends.  Briefly  stated,  the  be- 
lief of  Professor  Thorndike  is  this :  transfer  of  training  occurs 
only  to  the  degree  that  the  old  and  the  new  have  common 
elements.  In  learning  the  factoring  of  a2  —  b2  the  boy  may 
learn  it  as  the  method  of  factoring  the  difference  of  two 
squares,  or  as  the  factors  of  the  particular  expression  a2  —  b2. 
Confronted  with  x2  —  yz  there  would  in  the  former  case  be 
the  recognition  of  it  as  the  difference  of  two  squares,  which 
would  thus  provide  the  common  element  between  the  two 
situations,  and  the  learning  from  the  first  would  carry  over 
to  the  second.  However,  if  he  has  learned  merely  that  the 
factors  of  a2  —  b2  are  a  —  b  and  a  +  b,  the  x2  —  y2  situation 
will  present  to  him  no  element  from  the  a2  —  b2  situation,  and 
its  solution  will  necessarily  be  learned  de  novo.  The  prin- 
ciple involved  in  this  very  simple  case  holds  good,  we  are 
told,  in  the  more  complex  learning  activities.  In  each  of  the 
instances  mentioned  in  this  and  the  preceding  paragraphs, 
as  well  as  in  all  forms  of  learning,  that  which  is  learned, 
whether  knowledge  or  process,  is  serviceable  in  new  situations 
in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  identity  of  elements  in  the  old 
and  the  new  situations. 

The  fundamental  principle  involved  is  really  that  of  asso- 
ciation after  dissociation.  In  teaching  the  factoring  of  the 
difference  of  two  squares  the  instructor  confronts  the  pupil 
with  a  number  of  cases:  such  as  a2  —  b2,  c2  —  d2,  r*  —  4,  etc. 
In  each  case,  attention  is  called  to  the  one  feature  common 
to  all:  viz.,  the  fact  that  each  expression  is  the  difference  of 
the  squares  of  two  quantities  and  factors  into  the  sum  and 


24  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

difference  of  the  quantities.  In  each  case  there  occurs  an 
act  of  dissociation  and  following  this  comes  the  act  of  asso- 
ciation of  all  in  the  form  of  a  generalization.  The  boy  may 
become  able  to  factor  a2  —  b2  into  a  +  b  and  a  —  b  a  thousand 
times,  but  without  this  dissociation-association  process,  with- 
out this  generalization,  the  power  acquired  will  never  be 
transferred  to  other  expressions.  Similarly,  it  has  been 
shown  by  Bagley1  and  others  that  merely  teaching  children  to 
be  neat  in  their  arithmetic  papers  produces  no  real  effect 
upon  the  neatness  of  other  written  work.  Only  when  the 
particular  quality  of  neatness  is  isolated  and  dissociated  from 
arithmetic  papers  as  such,  and  generalized  in  an  application 
to  papers  and  written  work  in  general,  will  transfer  of  training 
occur. 

Pedagogical  Applications  of  the  Principle. — The  principle 
of  the  transferrence  of  training  as  thus  stated  is  comparatively 
simple.  Its  implications  and  applications  in  the  problems  of 
teaching  are  quite  the  opposite,  and  as  yet  little  has  been 
done  in  the  way  of  educational  reconstruction  in  the  light  of 
the  principle  already  agreed  upon.  For  our  purpose  it  will 
suffice  to  suggest  three  ways  in  which  the  teacher,  especially 
in  the  secondary  school,  must  recognize  the  principle  in  his 
instruction.  In  the  first  place,  in  deriving  a  concept,  either 
of  knowledge  or  of  process,  the  derivation  must  be  made  not 
from  one  concrete  case  but  from  a  wide  variety  of  cases,  since 
otherwise  the  student  will,  as  in  the  factoring  illustration 
above,  connect  the  response  learned  with  the  single  situation 
as  a  whole  instead  of  with  the  common  essential  of  all,  and 
thus  be  unable  to  carry  over  his  learning  to  other  situations 
involving  that  element,  though  different  in  form.  The  im- 
mature mind  is  incapable  of  analyzing  a  single  instance  suffi- 
ciently for  the  dissociation  of  an  abstract  quality  as  the  basis 
of  a  generalization.  The  second  suggestion,  following  directly 
from  the  above,  is  that  the  meaning  rather  than  the  mere 
form  of  what  is  learned  shall  be  at  the  basis  of  the  learning. 
1  Bagley,  "Educative  Process,"  p.  208. 


SOME  FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES  IN  LEARNING        25 

Situations  with  identity  of  form  are  rare;  those  with  identity 
of  meaning  as  regards  the  essential  elements  are  many,  and 
the  degree  to  which  learning  can  be  transferred  depends  upon 
the  degree  to  which  the  student  can  recognize  identity  of 
essential  elements  in  the  situations.  Thirdly,  applications  of 
the  principle  or  process  should  be  varied,  thus  injecting  into 
the  learning  a  training  in  looking  for  identity  of  essential  ele- 
ments between  the  familiar  situation  learned  and  the  wide 
range  of  situations  to  which  the  learning  can  be  applied. 
Further  applications  of  these  three  suggestions  will  be  made 
later  in  our  study,  especially  in  the  chapters  on  the  problem- 
atic and  the  application  modes  of  instruction. 

Writers  both  on  general  and  on  special  method  are  fre- 
quent offenders  in  the  violation  of  these  principles.  Method 
texts,  including  some  even  recently  published,  abound  in  ref- 
erences to  the  training  of  the  observation,  the  memory,  the 
reason,  in  a  general  way,  tacitly  assuming  an  identity  in  the 
observation  of  chemistry  and  of  German,  in  the  memory  of 
history  and  of  Latin,  in  the  reasoning  of  geometry  and  of 
physics.  On  the  other  hand,  the  writer  on  special  method 
often  falls  into  a  somewhat  similar  error  in  failing  to  provide 
for  the  identification  of  common  elements  of  learning  in  his 
own  special  field  and  in  other  seemingly  dissimilar  fields.  A 
further  correlation  of  studies  in  the  curriculum  will  tend  to 
remedy  somewhat  the  last-named  fault.  It  should,  however, 
be  the  peculiar  function  of  general  method  to  call  attention 
to  the  fact  of  the  potential  connections  between  different 
fields,  as  regards  transference  of  training,  and  to  the  modes 
of  instruction  whereby  these  potential  connections  are  brought 
to  consciousness  and  made  to  function. 

6.    SUMMARY 

Instruction  must  be  based  upon  the  child's  equipment, 
both  native  and  acquired.  This  consists  essentially  of  tenden- 
cies to  action,  in  which  individuals  differ  more  or  less  widely. 


26  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

The  teacher  must  induce  interest  in  the  material  to  be 
taught,  by  realness  of  problem,  interestedness,  building  upon 
existing  interests,  and  student  activity.  He  must  so  direct 
the  student  in  his  study  as  to  interest  him  in  the  best  things, 
by  leading  him  to  discover  in  the  content  of  instruction  the 
elements  which  have  a  real  significance  to  him. 

Without  attention,  learning  would  be  impossible.  Al- 
though passive  attention  is  most  effectual  for  learning,  active 
attention  is  usually  a  necessary  stepping-stone  to  it  in  the 
school. 

Learning  is  largely  a  matter  of  either  simple  association 
or  association  after  dissociation.  These  are  particularly  fun- 
damental in  habit-forming,  memory-forming,  discovery,  and 
reasoning. 

Training  acquired  in  one  intellectual  field  can  be  trans- 
ferred to  another  field  only  in  so  far  as  the  two  fields  have 
common  elements.  Hence,  the  derivation  of  concepts  should 
be  made  from  a  wide  variety  of  cases,  the  meaning  rather 
than  the  form  should  be  made  the  basis  of  connections,  and 
the  principles  or  processes  should  be  given  a  wide  variety  of 
applications. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Mention  several  influences  of  the  elementary  school  environ- 
ment which  would  produce  differences  of  mental  endowment  on  the 
part  of  pupils  just  entering  high  school. 

2.  Are  the  differences  of  endowment  of  the  pupil  to  be  viewed  as 
advantages  or  disadvantages?     Why? 

3.  Some  tell  us  that  life  abounds  in  uninteresting  but  necessary 
things,  and  that  the  school's  appeal  to  interest  is  wrong  in  that  it 
does  not  train  for  the  actual  conditions  of  life.     Criticise  the  argument. 

4.  How  would  it  do  to  let  the  pupil  select  for  study  just  those 
studies  and  topics  that  interest  him? 

5.  The   uninteresting   but   important    things   of   the   curriculum 
should  be  "made  interesting."     Analyze  and  criticise  this  proposition. 

6.  Attention  is  purely  spontaneous,  and  as  such  cannot  be  trained. 
Criticise  this  argument. 

7.  Suggest  some  student  offenses  which  should  be  dealt  with  at 


SOME  FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES  IN  LEARNING        27 

once,  to  prevent  distraction  of  attention;  some  the  treatment  of  which 
should  be  deferred  for  the  same  reason. 

8.  Give  concrete  illustration  of  how  active  attention  may  develop 
into  secondary  passive  attention,  as  the  result  of  study  in  the  high 
school. 

9.  Suggest  conditions  under  which  the  teacher  is  wise  in  resorting 
to  insistence  on  attention.     Conditions  under  which  such  resort  should 
be  unnecessary. 

10.  What  is  the  type  of  association  involved  in  the  following: 
Learning  to  spell  ?     Learning  the  principal  parts  of  an  irregular  verb  ? 
Learning  the  principle  of  the  artesian  well?     Learning  the  demon- 
stration of  a  geometrical  proposition?     Suggest  other  examples  of 
each  type  of  association. 

11.  An  instructor  in  zoology,  desiring  to  teach  the  principle  of 
protective  coloring,  used  two  illustrations:  the  striped  body  of  the 
tiger  and  that  of  the  zebra.     Criticise  the  procedure. 

12.  If  you  were  endeavoring  to  develop  patriotism  by  the  teaching 
of  the  career  of  Nathan  Hale,  how  would  you  make  sure  that  the 
patriotism  lesson  was  really  learned? 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READINGS 

Bolton,  "Principles  of  Education,"  chap.  XXVI. 
De  Garmo,  "Interest  and  Education,"  chap.  VIII. 
Thorndike,  "Principles  of  Teaching,"  chap.  V. 
Colvin,  "The  Learning  Process,"  chaps.  XVII,  XIX. 
Thorndike,  "Principles  of  Teaching,"  chaps.  VIII,  IX,  XV. 
Judd,  "Psychology  of  High  School  Subjects,"  chap.  XVII. 
Henderson,  "Textbook  in  the  Principles  of  Education,"  chap.  X. 
Colvin.  "The  Learning  Process,"  chap.  XIV. 


CHAPTER  III 

AIMS  IN  INSTRUCTION 
i.    EDUCATIONAL  AIMS 

Aims  of  Education. — Intelligent  procedure  presupposes  a 
conscious  purpose.  If  unanimity  in  formulation  of  its  aim 
were  an  essential  in  education,  the  outlook  would  be  most 
disheartening.  Modern  writers  seem  to  vie  with  one  another 
in  their  search  for  a  new  way  of  telling  us  what  education  is 
and  what  it  should  accomplish. 

Yet,  despite  this  seeming  disparity  in  statement,  we  can- 
not escape  the  conviction  that  as  regards  the  qualities  of  the 
finished  product  of  education  there  is  really  no  vital  disagree- 
ment. The  high  school  graduate  who  would  receive  the 
stamp  of  approval  under  one  standard  would  be  readily  ac- 
cepted by  the  others  as  educated.  Modern  thought  is  in 
virtual  agreement  in  stating  the  aim  of  education  in  social 
terms.  We  are  told  that  the  individual  must  be  socialized, 
that  he  must  be  introduced  into  society,  that  he  must  attain 
social  efficiency,  etc.  Moreover,  secondary  education  has  a 
distinctive  function  which  elementary  education  shares  only 
incidentally.  Society  expends  its  resources  and  energies  upon 
the  high  school  pupil  with  the  idea  that  he  will  attain  to  a 
broader  interpretation  and  function  in  society  than  that  for 
which  the  elementary  school  can  prepare.  The  product  of 
secondary  education  shall  be  a  leader,  able  and  disposed  to 
direct  and  inspire  his  less  favored  fellows  and  to  contribute  a 
social  service  to  which  they  cannot  attain.  He  must  be 
trained  to  function  in  society  as  a  leader  in  its  various  activi- 
ties and  institutions.  As  a  member  of  the  body  politic  he 
must  understand  the  institution  of  the  statev  and  be  able  and 

28 


AIMS   IN   INSTRUCTION  29 

disposed  not  alone  to  vote  intelligently  but  to  serve  the  com- 
munity in  official  capacity  when  needed.  From  the  economic 
side,  he  must  be  not  only  self-supporting,  but  able  to  con- 
tribute to  the  world's  wealth  by  leading  in  its  production  and 
distribution.  In  all  forms  of  social  activity  he  must  be  a 
person  of  broad  sympathy,  able  to  correctly  interpret  and 
evaluate  movements  for  social  welfare  and  to  lead  in  them. 
He  must  have  a  real  place  in  the  culture  of  the  race,  appre- 
ciating and  so  far  as  possible  contributing  to  the  aesthetic, 
religious,  moral,  and  intellectual  possessions  of  mankind. 
Finally,  his  power  and  disposition  to  think  and  feel  and  act 
in  these  social  ways  must  be  so  established  that  they  can  be 
depended  upon  to  function  as  occasion  demands. 

Aims  of  Instruction. — Thus  education,  and  in  a  peculiar 
way  and  degree  secondary  education,  must  aim  at  social 
intelligence,  social  disposition,  social  efficiency,  and  social 
habit.  As  instruction  is  the  school's  way  of  securing  these 
aims  in  the  individual  student,  they  must  have  an  immediate 
bearing  upon  the  aims  of  instruction.  To  be  socially  intelli- 
gent, one  must  know  his  human  and  his  physical  environ- 
ment, possessing  not  only  adequate  information  regarding  it 
and  appreciation  for  it,  but  the  intellectual  power  of  thought, 
judgment,  and  imagination  for  its  interpretation  and  im- 
provement. The  socially  disposed  individual  is  the  one  in 
whom  has  been  developed  the  feeling  for  social  interests  and 
welfare,  who  has  been  sensitized  to  his  environment,  so  that 
it  is  to  him  not  only  a  matter  of  intellect  but  an  object  of  real 
appeal  demanding  a  response.  Social  efficiency  is  the  capac- 
ity to  bring  intelligence  and  disposition  to  bear  in  social 
action,  involving  initiative,  will-power,  habit,  and  skill.  So- 
cial habit  is  that  fixity  of  character  which  comes  from  repeated 
social  action,  and  which  tends  to  insure  its  continuance.  It 
is  the  school's  task  to  develop  these  qualities  through  the 
process  of  instruction.  Accordingly,  if  we  would  enumerate 
the  aims  of  instruction,  the  list  might  well  include  the  follow- 
ing: (i)  Knowledge  of  one's  self,  of  one's  environment,  and 


30  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

of  the  relation  between  the  two.  (2)  Power  to  think,  with 
trained  judgment,  reason,  and  imagination.  (3)  Sympathetic 
feeling  toward  the  environment,  in  its  truth,  its  beauty,  and 
its  moral  implications.  (4)  Ability  for  self-expression,  in 
word  and  act,  under  the  guidance  of  this  knowledge  and 
thought  and  the  impulse  of  this  feeling.  (5)  Steadiness  and 
permanence  of  character  in  thought,  feeling,  and  conduct, 
and  the  conservation  of  attainments. 

2.    ESSENTIALS  AND  FACTORS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

The  Essentials  of  Instruction. — School  instruction,  in 
order  to  be  adequate,  must  meet  certain  requirements;  it 
must  secure  certain  results  on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  In  the 
first  place,  it  must  produce  knowledge.  The  student  must 
become  informed  about  the  ideas  that  do  or  should  play  a 
part  in  his  individual  and  social  experience;  with  the  most 
common  and  fundamental  of  these  he  should  become  familiar, 
so  that  he  not  merely  knows  about  them  but  knows  them, 
and  he  must  know  how  to  deal  with  all  these  things  intelli- 
gently. 

Secondly,  it  must  train  in  thought  power.  The  activities 
of  life  demand  the  constant  interpretation  of  the  things  and 
situations  encountered.  Judgment,  reasoning,  and  imagina- 
tion are  the  activities  that  give  meaning  to  the  known,  and 
extend  the  real  to  the  realm  of  the  ideal. 

The  third  requirement  is  that  the  development  of  senti- 
ment shall  be  provided  for.1  Adolescence  is  a  period  when 
the  boy  and  girl  feel  most  deeply.  Likes  and  dislikes,  admira- 
tion and  repulsion,  aspiration  and  disappointment  play  a  large 
part  in  adolescent  development,  and  the  education  which 
ignores  or  misinterprets  these  impulses  is  not  merely  wasteful 
but  often  negative  in  its  results. 

A  fourth  requirement  is  efficiency.     Of  what  use  to  know 

1  The  use  of  the  term  "sentiment"  where  the  word  "emotion"  is  usually 
employed  will  find  its  justification  in  Chapter  IX,  p.  173. 


AIMS  IN  INSTRUCTION  31 

much,  to  feel  deeply,  when  one  cannot  express  and  apply 
what  is  thought  and  felt?  How  much  is  said  to-day  of  the 
student  who  in  the  physics  class  cannot  use  the  simpler  for- 
mulas of  mathematics,  or  who  with  all  his  knowledge  of 
rhetoric  and  composition  cannot  write  a  creditable  letter  to 
his  parents !  Moreover,  he  should  be  able  to  work  for  and 
with  others  as  well  as  individually.  Individual  efficiency 
must  be  the  foundation  for  social  efficiency. 

Fifthly,  the  results  of  teaching  should  be  permanent. 
The  structures  we  build  are  not  for  a  day  but  for  a  lifetime, 
and  demand  lasting  foundations  and  well-built  superstruc- 
tures. Herein,  present-day  results  are  far  from  satisfactory. 
The  average  high  school  graduate,  after  five  years  of  non- 
scholastic  activity,  would  experience  no  little  embarrassment 
if  suddenly  called  upon  for  more  than  the  most  fundamental 
facts  and  processes  of  his  history  and  mathematics.  While 
it  is  true  that  not  a  few  of  the  facts  learned  in  school  are  in- 
tended merely  as  a  scaffolding  in  the  educational  structure, 
and  having  served  their  purpose  lose  much  of  their  value, 
still  most  of  the  knowledge  and  power  acquired  in  study  has 
permanent  value,  and  its  loss,  due  in  part  to  poor  teaching 
methods,  represents  a  serious  waste  in  the  educational 
economy. 

Factors  of  Method. — An  adequate  scholastic  training, 
therefore,  must  secure  these  five  results:  knowledge,  thought 
power,  sentimental  development,  efficiency,  and  permanency. 
How  is  this  to  be  accomplished?  In  terms  of  pupil  and 
teacher,  of  classroom  instruction,  what  are  the  forms  of 
activity  whereby  these  requirements  shall  be  met?  For  our 
answer  we  must  look  to  the  student's  interests,  thoughts, 
and  needs,  and  the  forms  of  activity  whereby  these  can  be 
made  to  function  for  his  educational  upbuilding.  Conve- 
nience of  classification  leads  us  to  suggest  six  such  forms  or 
phases  of  the  work  of  instruction,  based  upon  the  type  of 
student  activity  involved  and  the  aim  sought.  Convenience 
of  nomenclature  leads  us  to  call  these  the  six  factors  of  method, 


32  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

since  ultimately  the  whole  teaching  process  is  but  a  product 
of  these  six  and  can  be  resolved  into  them. 

In  the  first  place,  we  find  the  interest  of  curiosity  func- 
tioning in  the  acquisition  of  information.  The  student  wishes 
to  know  facts,  even  though  their  immediate  value  be  of  little 
or  no  concern  to  him.  It  is  nature's  means  of  first  introduc- 
ing the  world  to  the  child.  Obviously,  this  acquisition  is  the 
first  and  most  fundamental  factor  in  the  learning  process, 
and  out  of  it  the  other  factors  must  follow.  The  time  is  not 
very  far  past  when  this  one  activity  was  considered  practi- 
cally the  sole  element  in  education,  and  educational  efficiency 
was  measured  in  terms  of  the  amount  of  information  of  a 
given  sort  the  student  possessed.  Examinations  consisted  of 
questions  the  answers  to  which  were  merely  a  matter  of 
memory,  usually  of  the  mechanical  sort.  It  is  our  purpose 
to-day,  hi  principle  at  least  and  increasingly  so  in  practice, 
to  recognize  that  this  acquisition  factor  is  but  one,  though 
an  important  one,  in  learning. 

Not  merely  must  the  student  acquire  information,  but  he 
must  follow  it  up  with  reflection.  When  he  has  found  out 
something,  he  must  think  about  it,  investigate  its  implica- 
tions, and  its  relations  to  what  he  already  knows,  and  give  it 
a  place  in  his  intellectual  world.  From  the  world  of  the 
known  and  actual  he  must  by  imagination  construct  the 
realm  of  the  new  and  ideal.  -Reflection  is  that  phase  of 
knowing  in  which  the  interest  of  mental  activity  is  especially 
prominent.  In  the  well-conducted  class  exercise  no  small 
part  of  the  teacher's  work  is  to  stimulate  to  reflective  activity, 
in  question  and  answer,  comparison,  discussion,  and  a  multi- 
tude of  other  types  of  activity.  Merely  encouraging  the 
class  to  remain  silent  and  think  is  a  device  too  little  employed 
for  the  stimulation  of  reflection.  Yet  reflection  never  takes 
place  aimlessly  and  without  a  recognized  situation  which  it 
tries  to  interpret.  It  is  never  mere  meditation.  Simply  say- 
ing to  the  student,  "Now,  think  !  think !"  is  useless  unless  he 
is  given  something  to  think,  some  problem  to  solve.  Reflec- 


AIMS   IN  INSTRUCTION  33 

tion  starts  in  a  conscious  purpose,  and,  in  Dewey's  words, 
"his  reflection  is  aimed  at  the  discovery  of  facts  that  will 
serve  this  purpose.  .  .  .  Demand  for  the  solution  of  a  per- 
plexity is  the  steadying  and  guiding  factor  in  the  entire  process 
of  reflection."1 

The  purposiveness  of  discovering  and  thinking  suggests 
the  third  stage  in  the  learning  process,  the  stage  of  expression. 
Not  merely  does  the  student  like  to  find  out  and  reflect,  but 
his  next  impulse  is  to  do,  to  act  upon  his  idea.  The  wise  and 
venerable  maxim,  "No  impression  without  expression,"  is  a 
trustworthy  witness  to  the  fact  that  thought  which  does  not 
culminate  in  action,  either  immediately  or  ultimately,  has 
but  little  pedagogic  value.  The  interest  of  the  practical,  the 
desire  to  act  upon  his  impulses  and  to  give  expression  to  his 
ideas  and  impressions,  is  one  of  the  strongest  forces  in  the 
adolescent  nature,  and  the  teachers  who  do  not  utilize  it  in 
their  work  will  soon  find  that  the  ideas  and  impressions  so 
zealously  developed  fade  away  for  want  of  exercise.  True 
mastery  of  the  formula  for  the  area  of  a  triangle,  the  French 
equivalent  for  an  English  idiom,  and  the  law  of  the  pendulum, 
is  effected  only  by  finding  the  area  of  a  triangle,  using  the 
French  expression,  and  experimenting  with  a  pendulum.  It 
forms  the  completion  of  the  learning  process,  which  we  may 
say  consists  of  the  three  factors  of  acquisition,  reflection,  and 
expression. 

The  method  factor  which  is  doubtless  the  most  neglected 
of  the  group  is  the  appreciation  factor.  Too  widely  the  im- 
pression prevails  that  learning  only  is  the  work  of  the  school, 
and  that  the  sentimental  life  of  the  adolescent  is  a  matter 
with  which  the  teacher  has  no  official  concern.  Doubtless 
the  study  of  literature  is  the  only  conspicuous  exception,  and 
it  is  just  because  literary  study  cannot  be  carried  on  by  the 
learning  method  employed  in  other  fields  that  it  has  been 
found  so  difficult  to  teach.  The  interest  of  the  sentimental 
is  rather  repressed  than  furthered  by  the  methods  of  study 
1  Dewey,  "How  We  Think,"  p.  n. 


34  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

employed  in  securing  knowledge,  but  demands  a  type  of  pro- 
cedure in  harmony  with  its  character. 

The  four  factors  already  considered  are  those  which  func- 
tion in  the  interpretation  of  a  reaction  to  new  situations. 
The  material  dealt  with  is  in  each  case  a  content  as  yet  unde- 
veloped, or,  in  the  language  of  the  school,  is  advance  work. 
However,  the  pedagogical  requirement  of  permanence  of 
acquisition  demands  an  additional  factor,  whose  material  is 
the  old  and  familiar.  This  factor  we  shall  call  drill.  As  the 
first  four  factors  had  a  forward  movement,  we  have  here 
what  might  be  called  a  circular  movement,  wherein  the  path 
carries  us  round  and  round  upon  the  same  material  over  and 
over  again.  If  ancient  lineage  is  a  basis  for  aristocracy  in  the 
pedagogical  world,  drill  is  indeed  well  born,  for  one  of  the 
most  striking  characteristics  of  the  early  educators  was  the 
thoroughness  of  their  instruction.  True,  drill  has  fallen 
rather  out  of  fashion  for  a  time,  but  a  more  conservative 
movement  has  again  set  in,  and  the  favorite  of  the  earlier  days 
is  again  coming  into  its  own. 

If  the  three  first-named  factors  of  method  be  said  to  have 
a  forward  movement,  and  the  drill  a  circular  movement,  we 
might  ascribe  to  our  sixth  and  final  factor,  testing,  a  back- 
ward movement.  As  drill  is  a  reiteration  of  subject  matter 
and  processes  as  they  are  being  developed,  testing  is  a  recall 
of  the  content  of  earlier  study.  Its  material  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  learning  process,  but  it  is  for  a  far  different  aim. 
The  old  typewriter  with  the  writing  concealed  was  succeeded 
by  the  visible  writer  of  to-day  because  the  typist  could  do  her 
work  more  confidently  and  accurately  when  an  occasional 
glance  at  the  paper  would  show  what  had  already  been  writ- 
ten; so,  when  the  teacher  knows  how  his  instruction  is  suc- 
ceeding, and  wherein  his  work  needs  correcting  and  his 
methods  revising,  his  efficiency  is  correspondingly  increased. 
He  therefore  finds  it  necessary  to  test  his  pupils  at  suitable 
intervals,  to  discover  to  himself  (and  them)  whether  they  are 
making  the  progress  they  should  make,  and  wherein  to  alter 
the  method  of  procedure. 


AIMS  IN   INSTRUCTION  35 

Thus  we  have  analyzed  the  student  activity,  as  controlled 
by  the  teacher,  into  six  forms  which  we  take  to  be  the  six 
factors  of  method:  acquisition,  reflection,  expression,  appre- 
ciation, drill,  and  test.  In  the  succeeding  chapters  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  teaching  process  will  be,  either  implicitly  or 
explicitly,  in  terms  of  these. 


Teacher's  Aim. — Probably  the  chief  characteristic  of  pro- 
gressive method  and  the  one  which  gives  it  its  superiority 
over  mechanism  in  teaching  is  its  consciousness  of  an  aim 
which  permeates  every  phase  of  its  activity.  The  teacher 
who  goes  into  the  classroom  without  a  definite  purpose  which 
the  class  exercise  is  to  realize  will  at  the  close  of  the  hour  look 
back  upon  a  series  of  disconnected,  ineffectual  efforts.  The 
pupil  who,  during  the  class  exercise,  has  no  consciousness  of 
what  it  all  means  and  whither  it  leads  will  take  no  vital  inter- 
est in  his  work.  For  both  teacher  and  pupil,  the  work  of 
such  an  hour  has  degenerated  into  drudgery. 

A  definite  aim  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  a  consciousness 
of  the  "why,"  is  essential  to  both  the  "what"  and  the  "how" 
of  his  work.  In  his  organization  of  subject  matter  for  the 
lesson  he  can  by  a  process  of  selection  and  rejection,  of  em- 
phasis and  subordination,  construct  a  consistent  and  orderly 
plan  in  which  each  element  contributes  its  part  to  the  devel- 
opment of  the  thought.  The  distractions  due  to  irrelevant 
matter,  suggested  by  his  own  imagination,  by  outside  sources, 
or  by  the  class,  can  be  eliminated.  When  the  purpose  de- 
mands something  not  already  at  hand,  some  of  those  seem- 
ingly unimportant  side  lights  which  contribute  so  much 
toward  making  a  suitable  stage-setting,  the  need  is  at  once 
brought  to  consciousness  and  its  object  supplied  or  impro- 
vised. Further,  his  method  of  procedure  will  be  varied  to 
meet  best  the  need  of  the  class  exercise.  The  teacher  who  at 
each  step  of  his  procedure  has  in  mind  the  function  of  that 
step  is  able  to  carry  out  that  purpose  better  because  it  is  done 


36  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

intelligently,  not  imitatively,  and  accordingly  he  can  adapt 
the  developments  of  the  classroom,  both  anticipated  and 
unanticipated,  to  the  realization  of  his  aim.  Moreover,  the 
teacher's  own  mood  of  confidence  is  furthered  by  a  conscious 
purpose,  and  this  mood  is  one  of  the  chief  qualities  of  leader- 
ship. 

Student's  Aim. — The  advantages  for  the  student  of  a 
conscious  and  definite  aim  in  his  lesson  have  been  stated  by 
Rein1  as  essentially  the  following:  (i)  Definiteness  of  purpose 
assists  the  pupil  to  turn  his  thought  from  irrelevant  interests 
and  to  concentrate  his  attention  upon  the  business  in  hand. 

(2)  It  creates  in  the  student's  mind  a  situation  which  is  in- 
telligible and  real  to  him,  and  to  which  he  readily  reacts. 

(3)  It   arouses   the  mood  of  expectancy.     (4)  It  insures  a 
community  of  interest  between  pupil  and  teacher,  thus  en- 
listing the  attitude  of  co-operative  student  activity.     The  im- 
portance of  this  intelligent  participation  and  co-operation  of 
the  student  in  the  class  exercise  cannot  be  overemphasized, 
for  without  it  teaching  sinks  to  the  level  of  "school-keeping," 
and  learning  becomes  mere  mechanical  memorizing. 

Character  of  Aim. — The  teacher's  statement  to  his  class 
of  the  aim  of  the  class  exercise  for  the  day  receives  much 
attention  in  Herbartian  literature.  Naturally  the  ideal 
method  is  for  the  student  to  encounter  a  need  in  his  study  or 
class  discussion,  to  come  to  realize  that  need  as  one  worthy 
of  his  attention,  and  to  formulate  it  as  a  task  for  the  class  to 
help  him  master.  In  such  a  case,  the  teacher  usually  assists 
by  directing  the  student  to  the  discovery  of  the  need  and 
assisting  him  to  a  good  formulation  of  it.  Even  primary 
pupils  can  be  led  to  feel  a  considerable  degree  of  purposive- 
ness  in  the  lessons  assigned  them,  and  to  respond  to  an  appeal 
for  co-operation.  In  a  much  broader  way  and  to  a  far  greater 
degree,  the  same  response  is  attainable  in  secondary  educa- 
tion. In  the  first  place,  the  aim  is  of  a  kind  to  appeal  more 
strongly  to  the  advanced  student,  since  it  is  to  a  greater 
1  Rein,  "Padagogik  in  Systematischer  Darstellung,"  II,  p.  509. 


AIMS   IN   INSTRUCTION  37 

degree  a  matter  of  knowledge  and  feeling,  rather  than  skill, 
whose  value  is  more  indirect  and  remote.  Moreover,  even 
when  the  elements  of  drill  and  testing  are  introduced,  the 
older  student  is  more  willing  to  work  for  these  ends,  since  the 
remoter  value  has  more  appeal  to  him  than  to  a  younger 
child.  It  is  natural,  therefore,  that  the  more  advanced  the 
grade  of  work,  the  more  the  teacher's  aim  and  the  student's 
ami  should  tend  to  coincide,  and  the  more  naturally  and  com- 
pletely the  aim  of  the  lesson  can  be  developed  rather  than 
told  to  the  class  by  the  instructor. 

The  chief  essential  is  that  so  far  as  possible  the  aim  develop 
naturally,  rather  than  be  manufactured  artificially,  and  that 
it  be  a  real  need  appreciated  and  responded  to  by  the  student. 
Whether  first  formulated  as  a  statement  by  the  teacher,  a 
question  addressed  to  the  class,  or  a  problem  raised  by  the 
class,  is  of  less  concern,  so  long  as  it  is  of  a  character  to  arouse 
the  activity  of  the  student.  Indeed,  the  zest  of  the  unex- 
pected may  occasionally  be  utilized  by  suggesting  at  the 
beginning  of  the  class  exercise  a  problem  which  is  but  a  kind 
of  anticipation,  opening  up  into  the  real  problem  as  the  les- 
son proceeds.  Adams  gives  an  illustration  of  such.1  "In- 
stead of  starting  straightway  with  the  subject  of  the  differ- 
ence between  the  development  of  the  Feudal  System  in  Eng- 
land and  in  France,  the  problem  might  be  suggested:  Why 
are  there  hedgerows  in  England  and  not  in  France?  In  an- 
swering this  interesting  question  all  the  essential  points  of 
difference  emerge,  and  the  incentive  of  a  well-defined  purpose 
is  maintained  throughout  the  lesson." 

A  lesson  aim  always  involves  two  terms,  the  subject  mat- 
ter and  the  teaching  activity  that  corresponds  to  it.  When  a 
rule  is  memorized,  a  problem  solved,  a  poem  studied,  or  skill 
in  a  process  secured,  there  is  first  the  content,  whether  rule  or 
problem  or  poem  or  process,  and  second  the  method  factor  or 
factors  whereby  the  content  is  rendered  educative  for  the 
student.  With  the  content  of  the  rule  for  the  transposed 
1  Adams,  "Exposition  and  Illustration,"  p.  182. 


38  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

word  order  in  German  go  the  acquisition,  the  expression,  and 
the  drill.  The  study  of  stream  erosion  or  of  the  Bunker  Hill 
Oration  involves  the  acquisition,  the  reflection,  and  the  other 
method  factors  which  the  teacher  may  choose  to  employ. 
Thus,  the  aim  of  a  lesson  is  secured  by  the  adaptation  of 
process  to  content.  But  the  subject  matter  of  the  high  school 
curriculum  is  far  from  simple.  Almost  every  lesson  aim  is 
attained  through  the  realization  of  subordinate  aims.  Prac- 
tically every  process  is  a  complex  one,  involving  several  minor 
processes.  It  follows  naturally  that  minor  processes,  each 
with  its  own  particular  end,  may  serve  as  phases  of  the 
realization  of  a  single  principal  aim,  the  aim  of  the  lesson  or 
the  series  of  lessons.  For  example,  in  the  appreciation  of  a 
selection  of  poetry,  this  principal  aim  of  the  appreciation  may 
best  be  gained  by  the  realization  of  several  of  the  factors  of 
method,  such  as  the  acquisition  of  the  facts  of  the  poet's  life 
and  of  the  setting  of  the  poem,  the  appreciation  of  a  word 
picture,  and  the  drill  in  the  memorizing  of  passages  of  special 
interest.  These  principal  and  subordinate  aims  correspond 
to  what  are,  by  the  Herbartians,  called  the  Ziele  and  the 
Zwischenziele  (aims  and  intermediate  aims).  Naturally  these 
terms  are  in  a  measure  relative,  since  what  may  be  a  principal 
aim  for  a  smaller  lesson  unit  may  at  the  same  time  be  a  sub- 
ordinate aim  in  the  realization  of  some  still  larger  and  more 
inclusive  principal  aim.  However,  in  the  practical  work  of 
teaching,  the  subject  matter  usually  cleaves  readily  into  sec- 
tions, each  of  which  possesses  a  distinctness  of  aim,  content, 
and  method  such  that  it  can  be  treated  as  a  unit  in  teaching. 
Such  a  section  of  content,  or  teaching  unit,  need  not  coincide 
with  the  lesson  of  one  class  period.  Not  infrequently  a  topic 
will  be  so  large  as  to  occupy  two  or  even  more  lesson  hours, 
while  on  the  other  hand  there  may  be  more  than  one  such  unit 
dealt  with  in  a  single  lesson.  In  the  determination  of  the  size 
and  character  of  this  teaching  unit,  both  subject  matter  and 
teaching  method  must  be  considered.  However,  the  usual 
condition  and  the  one  best  adapted  to  instruction,  especially 
in  secondary  education,  is  the  coincidence  of  the  topic  or 


AIMS   IN   INSTRUCTION  39 

teaching  unit  with  the  lesson  for  the  hour,  since  the  unity 
and  perspective  are  thus  better  preserved  and  utilized. 

4.    THE  FIVE  MODES  OF  INSTRUCTION 

Lesson  Types. — Text-books  Qn  method  often  leave  the 
pedagogical  novice  with  the  notion  that  there  are  certain 
sharply  defined  "types"  or  " kinds"  of  lessons  which  serve 
as  moulds,  in  one  of  which  every  lesson  must  be  cast  and  to 
which  it  must  be  made  to  conform.  The  truth  which  the 
teacher  must  early  come  to  realize  is  that  with  differences  of 
content  and  of  aim  come  corresponding  differences  of  method. 
He  must  further  realize  that  the  method  in  each  case  is  not  a 
mere  haphazard,  cut-and-try  procedure,  but  a  system  of 
activities  so  selected  and  combined  as  best  to  realize  the  aim 
of  the  lesson.  The  number  of  possible  lesson  procedures  as 
combinations  of  various  forms  or  modes  of  teaching  activity 
is  unlimited.  On  the  other  hand,  the  number  of  these  teach- 
ing modes,  like  the  variety  of  muscular  movements  in  our 
daily  tasks,  is  decidedly  limited.  Moreover,  efficiency  in 
teaching,  as  elsewhere,  is  most  readily  secured  when  the  num- 
ber of  component  modes  of  activity  is  minimal  for  the  realiza- 
tion of  the  end  sought.  Taking  account  of  both  subject 
matter  and  lesson  aims,  with  the  dominant  factors  of  method 
involved,  we  find  five  such  fairly  well-defined  modes  or  types 
of  teaching,  under  which  all  the  activities  of  the  class  exer- 
cise may  be  classed,  and  of  which  it  is  built  up.  Occasion- 
ally a  single  mode  is  dominant  throughout  the  entire  class 
exercise.  More  often  several  modes  are  employed  in  suc- 
cession, and  even  overlap. 

The  Modes. — These  five  modes,  which  are  to  form  the 
basis  for  the  succeeding  chapters,  are  the  following: 

1.  The  Recitation  Mode. 

2.  The  Problematic  Mode. 

3.  The  Appreciation  Mode. 

4.  The  Expression-Application  Mode. 

5.  The  Laboratory  Mode. 


4O  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

Any  one  of  the  modes  may  of  itself  constitute  an  entire 
class  exercise,  though  not  always  to  advantage,  the  laboratory 
being  the  one  most  commonly  employed  in  this  way.  Prob- 
ably the  arrangement  most  often  used  outside  of  the  study  of 
literature  is  that  in  which  the  first  part  of  the  hour  is  devoted 
to  recitation,  followed  by  and  often  combined  with  prob- 
lematic development  and  closing  with  application.  The  ap- 
preciation mode  is  most  frequently  employed  in  literary 
study,  in  various  combinations  with  one  or  more  of  the 
modes  just  named.  In  the  application  of  these  five  modes 
of  teaching  the  teacher  must  not  look  for  ready-made  for- 
mulas whereby  the  modes  can  be  compounded  in  set  arrange- 
ments and  proportions,  for  the  realization  of  certain  definitely 
anticipated  and  classified  aims.  On  the  contrary,  these  are 
but  the  variously  colored  pigments  which  the  artist-teacher  is 
to  select,  blend,  adapt,  and  apply  for  the  carrying  out  of  a 
design  of  which  he  himself  must  be  the  master.  In  the  prep- 
aration of  his  colors  he  must  know  the  laws  of  color  mixture, 
and  which  components  are  the  best  to  employ  for  the  produc- 
tion of  certain  effects.  His  skill  consists  not  in  ignoring  but 
in  utilizing  these  laws  and  principles  in  the  production  of  the 
finished  work.  In  the  study  of  the  various  modes  of  teaching 
the  instructor  must  seek  so  to  master  them  that  the  very 
fixity  and  definiteness  of  their  qualities  do  not  restrict  him 
but  serve  him. 

The  Formal  Steps. — The  Herbartians  have  always  laid 
great  emphasis  upon  what  are  termed  the  "formal  steps"  of 
instruction.  We  are  told  that  the  teaching  unit  or  "method 
whole"  is  inductive  in  character  and  leads  us  from  particular 
observation  and  data  to  a  general  concept  or  concepts.  In 
this  procedure  five  well-defined  steps  must  be  followed,  after 
the  lesson  aim  has  first  been  stated.  Although  differently 
named  by  different  writers,  there  is  no  considerable  disagree- 
ment as  to  their  character,  and  the  names  suggested  by  Rein 
are  the  most  commonly  used,  especially  in  the  United  States: 
viz.,  Preparation,  Presentation,  Comparison,  Generalization, 


AIMS  IN  INSTRUCTION  41 

and  Application.  As  Rein1  points  out,  these  steps  are  appli- 
cable only  when  it  is  the  purpose  to  develop  a  general  con- 
cept, inductively.  While  it  is  true  that  induction  does  in- 
volve these  elements,  it  is  also  true  that  as  the  American 
secondary  school  is  taught,  not  all  lessons  are  inductive,  and 
that  the  "steps"  are  elements,  often  used  simultaneously, 
rather  than  successive  stages  of  thought.  While  the  educa- 
tional world  is  under  untold  obligation  to  the  Herbartians  for 
the  systematization  given  to  method  of  instruction  by  these 
"formal  steps,"  we  must  be  on  our  guard  lest  its  systematic 
character  become  for  us  merely  formal.  In  Professor  Dewey's 
words2:  "The  more  the  teacher  has  reflected  upon  pupils' 
probable  intellectual  response  to  a  topic  from  the  various 
standpoints  indicated  by  the  five  formal  steps,  the  more  he 
will  be  prepared  to  conduct  the  recitation  in  a  flexible  and 
free  way,  and  yet  not  let  the  subject  go  to  pieces  and  the 
pupils'  attention  drift  in  all  directions;  the  less  necessary  will 
he  find  it,  in  order  to  preserve  a  semblance  of  intellectual 
order,  to  follow  some  one  uniform  scheme.  He  will  be  ready 
to  take  advantage  of  any  sign  of  vital  response  that  shows 
itself  from  any  direction."  On  the  other  hand,  we  may 
often  find  the  "steps"  of  real  suggestive  value  in  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  lessons,  especially  those  of  an  inductive  character, 
the  consideration  of  which  will  occupy  us  in  a  later  chapter. 

5.    SUMMARY 

School  education  should  secure  for  the  student  five  quali- 
ties: knowledge  of  self,  of  environment,  and  of  their  mutual 
relation;  power  of  thought;  sympathetic  feeling  toward  envi- 
ronment; power  to  express  and  apply;  steadiness  of  character 
and  permanence  of  attainments.  Instruction  which  is  adapted 
to  the  realization  of  this  fivefold  aim  may  be  thought  of  as 
consisting  of  six  elements  or  method  factors:  acquisition,  as 

1  Rein,  "Padagogik  in  Systematischer  Darstellung,"  II,  p.  542. 
*  Dewey,  "How  We  Think,"  p.  205. 


42  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

the  securing  of  information;  reflection,  as  its  interpretation; 
expression,  as  the  giving  out  of  received  experiences;  appre- 
ciation, as  the  feeling  response  to  situations;  drill,  as  the  ren- 
dering permanent  of  experiences;  and  testing,  as  the  insuring 
of  results  sought. 

A  conscious,  definite  aim  facilitates  instruction  by  giving 
the  teacher  a  basis  for  selection  of  both  content  and  method. 
For  the  student  it  renders  the  work  significant  and  induces 
an  attitude  of  co-operation  and  interest.  In  secondary  educa- 
tion especially,  the  maturity  of  the  students  tends  to  secure 
identity  of  aim  on  the  part  of  teacher  and  class.  Such  aim, 
with  its  subordinate  aims,  determines  the  processes  of  in- 
struction as  well  as  the  size  and  content  of  the  lesson. 

In  the  realization  of  the  lesson  aim,  instruction  may  be 
viewed  under  five  modes,  which  are  variously  combined  in 
the  method  of  instruction  for  different  lessons:  viz.,  Recita- 
tion, Problematic,  Appreciation,  Expression-Application,  and 
Laboratory. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Criticise  the  list  of  instruction  aims  suggested.     Would  you  add 
self-reliance  to  the  list?  politeness?  honesty? 

2.  Of  the  five  instruction  aims,  which  do  you  think  is  the  most 
neglected?  the  most  often  emphasized? 

3.  What  lesson  aims  would  you  suggest  for  lessons  on  the  following 
topics:  the  battle  of  Waterloo?  the  proposition  that  the  diagonals 
of  a  parallelogram  bisect  each  other?  the  first  declension  in  Latin? 
the  making  of  a  bookcase?  the  frosting  of  a  cake? 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READINGS 

Bagley,  "The  Educative  Process,"  chap.  III. 
Henderson,  "Textbook  in  the  Principles  of  Education,"  chap.  I. 
Strayer,  "Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process,"  chap.  I. 
Parker,  "Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools,"  chap.  V. 
Suzzallo's  article  on  "Types  of  Teaching,"  in  Monroe's  "Cyclopedia 
of  Education." 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  CLASS  EXERCISE 

i.    MEANING 

Forms  of  School  Work. — The  school  work  of  the  typical 
high  school  student  is  by  no  means  wholly  devoid  of  variety. 
Recitation  and  home  study,  laboratory,  field  excursion,  and 
library  study,  each  has  its  place  in  his  schedule  of  work,  and 
happy  is  that  student  who  is  able  to  recognize  and  realize  that 
place  in  his  educational  progress.  Indeed,  if  he  fails  in  the 
attempt  and  does  not  see  the  relation  of  part  to  part  and  to 
the  whole  learning  process,  he  can  find  not  a  few  fellow  unfor- 
tunates among  his  teachers  who  assign  him  these  activities 
with  but  little  better  knowledge  of  their  purpose.  In  thor- 
oughly efficient  and  well-organized  teaching,  every  form  of 
student  exercise  has  a  definite  function  in  the  whole  plan, 
each  part  having  its  direct  bearing,  well  defined  and  clearly 
recognized,  upon  some  other  phase  or  phases  of  school  work. 
Typical  forms  of  student  exercise  in  school  instruction  are 
the  formal  classroom  exercise  or  "recitation,"  the  field  excur- 
sion, the  laboratory  exercise,  the  library  study,  and  the  stu- 
dent's individual  lesson  preparation,  ranging  all  the  way  from 
the  first-named  highly  social  and  teacher-controlled  proce- 
dure to  the  distinctively  individual  and  self-controlled  home 
study. 

The  Class  Exercise  and  the  Recitation. — The  better  books 
on  teaching  deplore  the  use  of  the  term  "recitation"  as  com- 
monly employed,  since  it  naturally  suggests  a  "reciting," 
phonograph-like,  of  material  memorized  by  the  student.  The 
term  is  a  survival  of  the  days  when  the  aim  of  education  was 
conceived  of  as  information,  and  the  teacher's  work  consisted 

43 


44  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

in  hearing  lessons  "recited."  Unfortunately,  the  use  of  the 
term  has,  by  force  of  suggestion,  induced  the  untrained 
teacher  to  suppose  that  the  work  of  teaching  is,  as  the  word 
implies,  a  hearing  of  "recitations,"  whereas  the  efforts  of 
educators  to-day  is  to  lay  more  emphasis  on  thinking  and 
doing,  though  the  recitation  element  is  not  to  be  wholly 
eliminated.  In  order  to  negate  this  implication  in  the  mind 
of  the  prospective  teacher,  we  shall,  in  our  study  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  instruction,  employ  the  term  "Class  Exercise"1  for 
the  more  common  and  formal  type  of  class  work  which  is  con- 
ducted in  the  classroom,  and  reserve  the  name  "recitation" 
for  that  form  of  activity  to  which  it  is  strictly  applicable. 
Leaving  the  other  types  of  class  work  for  a  subsequent  chap- 
ter, we  will  here  devote  the  greater  part  of  our  attention  to  a 
consideration  of  the  class  exercise,  its  forms,  aims,  methods, 
and  essentials. 

Significance  of  the  Class  Exercise. — The  educational  work 
of  the  school  centres  about  the  class  exercise.  Because  it  is 
the  chief  point  of  application  of  the  educational  process  it 
must  take  account  of  practically  every  phase  of  that  process. 
Professor  Dewey  calls  it  "  a  social  clearing-house  where  experi- 
ences and  ideas  are  exchanged  and  subjected  to  criticism, 
where  misconceptions  are  corrected,  and  new  lines  of  thought 
and  inquiry  are  set  up."2  It  is  there  that  the  teacher  under- 
takes most  definitely  and  formally  the  direction  of  the  stu- 
dent's thought,  there  the  experience  of  the  student  is  brought 
to  consciousness  and  expression,  and  made  to  serve  in  the 
gaining  of  further  experience.  Not  the  least  of  the  values  of 
the  class  exercise  is  its  social  value.  Every  member  of  the 
class  is  called  upon  to  contribute  his  share  in  the  activity  of 
the  group,  and  in  return  receives  his  share  in  its  benefit. 
Better  perhaps  than  in  the  home  circle  he  comes  to  appreciate 

1  The    term  "Class  Conference,"  suggested  by  Professor  Twiss,  seems 
to  us  too  narrow  in  its  suggestion.     Cf.  Monroe,  "Principles  of  Secondary 
Education,"  p.  460. 

2  Dewey,  "School  and  Society,"  p.  65. 


THE  CLASS  EXERCISE  45 

the  significance  of  social  helpfulness  and  to  participate  in  its 
realization. 


2.    PERSONALITY  IN  THE  CLASS  EXERCISE 

Individual  and  Social  Aspects  of  the  Class  Exercise. — The 
old  disposition  to  base  educational  method  upon  subject  mat- 
ter alone,  combined  with  the  newer  demand  for  universal 
education,  must  be  held  largely  responsible  for  the  tendency 
to  overlook  the  claim  of  personality  and  individual  differ- 
ences. "Mass  teaching"  and  the  "lock  step  in  education" 
have  become  common  objects  of  criticism  among  educational 
reformers,  but  the  actual  reformation  is  by  no  means  ac- 
complished. The  "average  student"  is  an  imaginary,  non- 
existent being,  and  of  the  "typical  student"  we  can  speak 
with  but  little  better  aptness,  for  the  number  of  "types"  of 
student  is  limited  only  by  the  number  of  bases  for  classifica- 
tion. Nevertheless,  social,  economic,  and  intellectual  con- 
siderations demand  that  young  people  shall  be  educated  in 
groups  rather  than  individually.  Upon  the  teacher  devolves 
the  problem  of  determining  just  how  individuality  can  be 
recognized  and  how  group  instruction  can  be  employed  with- 
out the  two  being  reciprocally  negative  in  action.  Correct 
method  is  that  which  employs  the  group  instruction  as  a 
means  for  the  development  of  personality.  For  the  accom- 
plishment of  this,  the  teacher  must  at  the  first  opportunity 
study  his  pupils,  and  as  the  work  advances  watch  the  devel- 
opment of  each  member  of  his  class,  encouraging  here  and 
restraining  there,  appealing  to  one  from  one  point  of  view,  to 
another  from  a  different  one.  The  skilful  teacher  will  be 
ever  on  the  watch  for  individual  capacities  and  traits  which 
can,  by  proper  treatment,  be  converted  into  trained  talents, 
realizing  that  human  progress  is  the  result  of  the  selection  and 
development  of  individual  variations.  Nor  may  we  neglect 
the  shortcomings  of  those  pupils  whose  cases  demand  special 
assistance  and  are  often  remediable.  More  frequent  than 


46  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

either  are  pupils  who  are  neither  superior  nor  inferior  but 
simply  "different,"  and  whose  cases  call  for  specially  adapted 
procedure.  Method  must  never  be  interpreted  as  a  cast-iron 
form  into  which  student  and  study  are  to  be  forced  and 
fitted.  In  the  diversified  curriculum  of  the  high  school  some 
provision  is  made  for  individual  variations  of  interest  and 
capacity.  In  those  studies  in  which  the  feeling  element  pre- 
dominates this  is  especially  true,  since  in  response  to  emo- 
tional situations  the  greatest  diversity  occurs.  Often,  too, 
the  appeal  of  a  laboratory  science  has  sufficed  to  hold  a  boy 
in  school  when  all  other  agencies  seemed  futile. 

Personality  in  Teaching. — In  an  earlier  chapter  (page  4) 
reference  was  made  to  the  importance  of  the  preservation  of 
the  personality  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  and  the  statement 
was  made  that  this  was  dependent  on  his  use  of  method. 
The  teacher  who  falls  into  a  routine  of  method,  varying  it  but 
little,  will  soon  cease  to  be  a  person  (pedagogically  speaking) 
and  become  a  machine.  Method  and  personality  in  teaching 
are  not  antagonists  but  allies,  and  the  common  foe  of  both  is 
mechanism.  One  of  the  worst  foes  to  the  development  of 
the  teacher's  personality  is  his  tendency  to  depend  upon  the 
text-book  for  the  organization  and  interpretation  of  the  les- 
son, instead  of  formulating  his  own  aim  and  organizing  the 
available  material  accordingly.  Personality  must  be  pre- 
served and  exigencies  in  the  class  exercise  must  be  met,  but 
preservation  of  personality  and  meeting  of  exigencies  really 
mean  the  making  of  even  the  unexpected  serve  toward  the 
realization  of  the  aim  in  view.  But  the  preservation  of  per- 
sonality and  the  obtrusion  of  individuality  are  not  synony- 
mous. To  direct  the  newly  fledged  teacher,  face  to  face  with 
his  first  class,  "Be  natural!"  would  be  a  comedy  were  it  not 
too  often  a  tragedy,  for  he  is  confronting  the  most  unnatural 
situation  of  his  life.  A  characteristic  of  good  teaching  is 
that  the  individuality  of  the  teacher  is  kept  in  the  background, 
and  anything  that  draws  the  attention  of  the  student  to  the 
instructor  is  as  a  rule  to  be  avoided.  A  frequent  source  of 


THE  CLASS  EXERCISE  47 

distraction  is  the  "schoolroom  voice."  Many  a  teacher  whose 
conversational  tones  are  smooth  and  musical  assumes  in 
teaching  a  harsh,  high-pitched  voice  which  is  fatiguing  to 
himself  and  nerve- wearing  to  his  pupils.  "Be  yourself"  is 
adequate  advice  only  when  interpreted  as  meaning  "be  your 
best  self."  Mannerisms  of  speech,  of  bearing,  or  of  personal 
habit  are  usually  distracting  elements,  and  the  teacher  must 
study  himself  (better  still,  ask  a  competent  friend  to  be  a 
critic)  in  order  to  find  out  these  unconscious  obstacles  to  suc- 
cessful teaching.  When  we  realize  the  force  of  imitation  and 
suggestion,  conscious  or  otherwise,  in  the  relation  of  teacher 
to  pupil,  the  importance  of  personality  in  teaching  is  yet  more 
deeply  impressed  upon  us. 

3.    THE  ATMOSPHERE  OF  THE  CLASS  EXERCISE 

Mood. — Attention  has  of  late  been  directed  by  writers  on 
school  hygiene  to  the  lighting,  heating,  and  ventilation  of  the 
school  building,  and  it  seems  a  justifiable  figure  of  speech  to 
refer  to  the  light,  the  warmth,  and  the  movement  in  the  in- 
tellectual atmosphere  as  well.  By  light  we  mean  the  spirit 
of  cheerfulness  which  should  prevail  in  all  phases  of  school 
work.  More  influential  than  we  ordinarily  realize  is  the  mood 
that  prevails  during  the  instruction,  and,  as  this  is  true  in 
learning,  it  is  peculiarly  true  in  appreciation  work.  The 
appeal  of  many  a  picture  is  enhanced  or  detracted  from  by 
its  frame,  and  every  schoolboy  knows  that  he  has  found  many 
a  task  the  easier  to  do  because  of  the  spirit  which  prevailed 
in  the  doing  of  it.  An  army  can  march  farther  when  it  is 
singing  and  the  band  is  playing;  a  class  can  learn  better  when 
in  a  cheerful  mood.  Not  all  students  can  be  made  to  feel 
"It  is  good  for  us  to  be  here,"  but  it  is  possible  to  induce  a 
considerable  degree  of  good  humor  in  work,  and  in  the  accom- 
plishment of  this  there  is  no  force  as  potent  as  contagion. 
At  the  beginning  of  a  lesson  hour,  the  class  usually  represents 
a  variety  of  moods,  but  the  absence  of  any  dominant  mood 


48  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

and  the  attitude  of  expectancy  are  the  teacher's  opportunity. 
Accordingly,  his  mood  can  quickly  and  easily  be  made  to 
pervade  the  class.  Some  one  has  said  that  the  grouchy 
teacher  should  be  quarantined,  because  he  is  suffering  from  a 
highly  contagious  disease.  Why  not  express  the  thought  pos- 
itively by  saying  that  the  cheerful  teacher  is  the  illumination 
of  the  classroom,  and  of  a  sort  of  which  there  is  no  danger  of 
excess  ?  Carrying  the  figure  further,  this  light  not  only  radi- 
ates from  the  teacher  but  it  reflects  from  the  class,  increasing 
in  power  with  no  fear  of  violating  any  law  of  the  conservation 
of  energy. 

Spirit  of  Work. — Closely  associated  with  illumination  goes 
temperature.  As  in  the  new  open-air  schools,  the  pupils  are 
warmed  by  vigorous  physical  exercise,  so  the  warmth  of  the 
intellectual  atmosphere  of  the  classroom  must  be  generated 
by  the  activity  of  the  pupils  and  teacher.  The  adolescent 
loves  to  work,  though  he  hates  drudgery.  Fanned  by  a  real 
vital  interest  in  the  work  of  the  hour,  the  spirit  of  the  class 
can  be  raised  to  a  veritable  "glow."  The  teacher  who  comes 
into  the  classroom  "on  fire"  with  interest  in  his  work  and 
his  message,  not  of  explosive  fireworks  variety,  but  full  of 
the  zeal  of  a  well-controlled  but  deep  interest  in  his  work 
and  his  students,  will  easily  incite  a  similar  response  on 
the  part  of  his  class,  and  the  intellectual  warmth  of  the 
classroom  will  be  assured. 

4.    THE  CLASSROOM  ACTIVITY 

Importance  of  Activity. — The  character  ascribed  to  the 
class  exercise  earlier  in  the  chapter  is  one  that  naturally  im- 
plies activity,  hi  which  all  members  of  the  class  have  a  part. 
The  student  has  a  part  in  the  class  exercise  only  as  far  as  his 
activity  extends.  Receptivity  alone  is  of  practically  no  edu- 
cational value.  Only  by  doing  can  the  student  learn.  How- 
ever, this  must  not  be  interpreted  as  physical  movement. 
Often  the  greatest  intellectual  activity  is  carried  on  silently 


THE   CLASS   EXERCISE  49 

and  without  bodily  action.1  As  a  rule,  however,  the  best 
type  of  activity  is  that  in  which  mind  and  body  both  partici- 
pate, each  assisting  the  other  in  its  task.  The  interest  that 
attaches  to  work  in  which  both  mind  and  body  are  at  work 
together  upon  the  same  problem  is  undoubtedly  the  strongest 
kind  to  which  instruction  can  appeal.  It  follows  that,  as  a 
rule,  a  greater  degree  of  vitality  in  teaching  results  when  the 
instructor  stands  at  his  work;  a  seated  position  usually  tends 
toward  a  loss  of  vigor  in  instruction,  and  a  consequent  in- 
activity on  the  part  of  the  class. 

Use  of  Blackboard. — The  usual  arrangement  of  black- 
board work  in  German  schools  is  on  the  whole  inferior  to  that 
in  common  use  in  America,  in  that  it  does  not  make  as  good 
provision  for  class  activity.  In  the  former  case  there  is 
usually  but  a  single  blackboard,  upon  which  one  or  possibly 
two  students  do  all  the  blackboard  work  of  the  class  at  any 
one  time.  The  American  plan,  whereby  half  or  all  of  the 
students  are  working  at  the  board  simultaneously,  provides 
for  better  distribution  of  the  physical  activity  to  accompany 
the  mental.  With  us  this  factor  of  blackboard  work  per- 
forms a  large  function  in  the  teaching  of  any  subject  wherein 
suitable  simultaneous  exercises  are  involved.  Both  students 
and  teacher  may  to  excellent  advantage  make  more  use  of 
the  blackboard  for  summaries,  drawings,  etc.,  than  is  usually 
done.  While  it  is  not  uncommon  for  teachers  to  utilize  the 
board  in  exposition,  it  is  unfortunate  that  they  so  often  feel 
handicapped  by  inability  to  draw.  The  ability  on  the  part 
of  both  teacher  and  pupil  to  make  drawings  in  class  work  is 
of  inestimable  value,  and  the  ability  to  make  serviceable  ones, 
at  least  with  a  very  little  practice,  is  much  more  general  than 
is  commonly  imagined,  and  should  be  encouraged  and  devel- 
oped. The  advantages  of  board  work  over  seat  work  are 
two:  it  makes  it  possible  for  material  to  be  observed  and 
studied  by  the  entire  class,  and  it  facilitates  the  supervision 

1  A  suggestive  illustration  of  this  is  given  by  De  Garmo  in  his  "  Interest 
and  Education,"  p.  204. 


50  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

and  assistance  of  several  students  working  simultaneously. 
Its  administrative  difficulties  and  the  limited  practical  value 
of  blackboard  skill  outside  of  the  school  forbid  its  employ- 
ment by  students  except  for  these  two  purposes. 

Variety  in  Procedure. — Just  as  the  newness  of  a  country 
keeps  the  explorer  alert  and  mentally  active,  so  the  element 
of  variety  and  the  unexpected  serves  a  real  purpose  in  render- 
ing instruction  interesting  and  lively.  Not  infrequently  it  is 
worth  while  to  vary  from  the  order  of  the  text-book  for  the 
sole  purpose  of  arousing  the  mood  of  expectancy,  and  thereby 
interest  and  attention.  Adams1  has  called  attention  to  the 
use  of  surprise  as  a  thought  stimulant  in  deepening  the  im- 
pression made  by  ideas  which  might  otherwise  be  overlooked. 

Distribution  of  Activity. — A  point  of  technic  which  de- 
mands care  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  is  the  distribution  of 
the  activity  of  the  class.  It  is  so  much  easier  to  do  an  intel- 
lectual task  than  to  get  it  done  by  others  that  the  teacher 
easily  falls  into  the  habit  of  doing  the  students'  thinking  for 
them.  Moreover,  not  merely  must  the  student  be  active 
but  he  must  be  the  source  of  the  activity.  "One  might  as 
well  say  he  has  sold  when  no  one  has  bought,  as  to  say  that 
he  has  taught  when  no  one  has  learned.  And  in  the  educa- 
tional transaction,  the  initiative  lies  with  the  learner  even 
more  than  in  commerce  it  lies  with  the  buyer.  If  an  indi- 
vidual can  learn  to  think  only  in  the  sense  of  learning  to 
employ  more  economically  and  effectively  powers  he  already 
possesses,  even  more  truly  one  can  teach  others  to  think  only 
in  the  sense  of  appealing  to  and  fostering  powers  already 
active  in  them."2  Power  of  initiative  is  a  product  of  this 
student  activity,  wherein  the  pupil  is  trained  to  feel  the  force 
of  the  problem,  to  recognize  that  it  is  a  problem,  and  to  realize 
that  the  power  for  its  solution  lies  within  himself.  For  the 
same  reason,  it  is  often  better  to  call  upon  the  class  for  a 
judgment  as  to  the  merit  of  a  pupil's  recitation  or  report  than 
for  the  teacher  himself  to  at  once  pronounce  upon  it,  provided 

1  Adams,  "Exposition  and  Illustration,"  pp.  214  ff. 

2  Dewey,  "  How  We  Think,"  pp.  29-30. 


THE   CLASS   EXERCISE  51 

always  that  the  spirit  of  the  criticism  be  one  of  justice  rather 
than  of  faultfinding.  Thus  initiative  and  self-reliance  are 
among  the  aims,  possibly  are  the  chief  aims,  of  the  class  exer- 
cise. The  benefits  of  self-government  in  school  administra- 
tion are  no  greater  than  the  corresponding  benefits  of  initia- 
tive and  self-reliance  in  thought. 

Almost  as  bad  as  doing  the  student's  work  for  him  is  a 
failure  to  secure  a  distribution  of  activity  among  the  various 
members  of  the  class.  The  ideal  to  be  sought  is  equality  of 
participation  on  the  part  of  all  the  students,  but  the  ideal  is 
especially  difficult  to  realize  because  of  the  great  difference 
in  ability  as  well  as  in  temperament  between  the  various 
pupils.  Only  by  the  most  careful  attention  to  the  matter 
can  the  teacher  attain  even  approximately  to  that  ideal,  but 
the  importance  of  the  result  demands  and  justifies  the  effort. 
When  the  glow  of  interest  is  present  and  the  movement  is 
strong  and  rapid,  only  the  greatest  care  will  avail  to  prevent 
the  slower  or  more  indifferent  pupils  from  being  left  out. 
Right  here  comes  in  the  difficulty  in  determining  the  line 
where  the  spontaneity  in  response  and  distribution  of  activity 
shall  mutually  limit  each  other.  Indeed,  such  a  line  cannot 
be  fixed,  but  the  teacher  must  determine  it  largely  by  experi- 
ence, for  the  quick  and  the  slow  make  a  hard  team  to  drive. 
The  use  of  concert  recitation  carries  with  it  the  problem  of 
distribution  of  activity,  and  with  any  but  a  small  class  it 
demands  the  most  careful  attention  to  make  sure  that  all  the 
students  are  really  having  a  part.  It  is  so  easy  for  pupils  to 
lag,  even  a  fraction  of  a  second,  long  enough  for  the  brighter 
or  better  prepared  student  to  speak  the  word,  and  they  thus 
merely  quote  rather  than  recite.  When  the  class  is  small 
and  interest  general,  and  the  practice  infrequent,  it  may 
serve  the  purpose  of  securing  simultaneous  activity  for  a 
number  of  students,  but  the  inexperienced  teacher  should  use 
it  very  sparingly. 

Equality  of  participation  is  to  be  measured  in  terms  not 
of  time  but  of  activity,  and  some  pupils  will  participate  more 
in  twenty  minutes  of  the  class  period  than  others  will  in 


52  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

forty.  Considerations  of  efficiency  as  well  as  fairness,  there- 
fore, argue  against  the  retention  of  all  the  members  of  the 
class  throughout  the  whole  of  every  class  exercise.  There  is 
no  valid  reason  why  the  quick  pupil  who  has  already  accom- 
plished the  result  sought  by  the  instruction  should  be  required 
to  wait  as  an  impatient  observer  of  his  slower  fellow  students' 
efforts.  Rather,  he  should  be  permitted  quietly  to  occupy 
himself  profitably  with  other  work,  either  for  the  remainder 
of  the  hour  or  until  in  the  course  of  the  instruction  his  further 
participation  is  called  for.  While  the  leaving  of  the  class- 
room during  the  hour  is  often  inexpedient,  the  capable  stu- 
dent can  be  trained  to  develop  sufficient  concentration  of 
attention  for  independent  study  in  his  seat  or  at  the  rear  of 
the  room.  Since  the  personnel  of  the  quicker  group  is  fairly 
definite  and  permanent,  the  seating  arrangement  of  the  class 
may  provide  for  the  location  of  this  group  at  the  rear  or  side 
of  the  room,  where  they  can  readily  be  disregarded  in  the 
instruction  without  change  of  seats. 

Preparedness. — The  bell  announcing  the  close  of  the  class 
period  comes  with  disconcerting  quickness  to  the  young 
teacher  in  the  midst  of  an  interesting  lesson.  The  plan  he 
had  hoped  to  carry  through  has  experienced  unexpected  de- 
lays in  realization.  The  unexpected  is  liable  to  happen  with 
the  best  of  instruction,  but  care  on  the  teacher's  part  will 
often  help  to  solve  the  problem  by  prevention  of  waste. 
Doubtless  one  of  the  greatest  sources  of  delay  is  in  the  dis- 
tractions that  come  into  the  class  exercise.  Possible  difficul- 
ties must  be  anticipated  and  provided  against.  In  science 
instruction,  it  is  essential  that  the  apparatus  may  be  depended 
upon  to  work  when  it  is  wanted,  with  all  adjustments  made 
and  materials  at  hand  before  the  hour  begins.  Sources  in 
literature  and  history,  compasses  and  rulers  in  geometry, 
should  be  ready  for  use  when  needed.  A  two-minute  inter- 
ruption may  cost  five  minutes  of  loss,  owing  to  break  in  con- 
tinuity in  thought,  and  the  activity  of  the  class  suffers  ac- 
cordingly. 


THE   CLASS   EXERCISE  53 

Tempo.  —  Successful  teaching  must  take  account  not 
merely  of  the  What  and  the  How  but  also  the  How  Much,  or 
more  accurately  the  How  Fast.  The  matter  of  the  "tempo" 
in  the  class  exercise  is  one  which  demands  consideration,  espe- 
cially in  American  high  schools,  where  the  spirit  of  the  school, 
like  that  of  the  nation,  is  one  of  hurry  under  pressure.  There 
are  times  when  the  tempo  of  the  class  exercise  should  be  com- 
paratively high,  in  such  work  as  drill  and  testing,  and  to  a 
considerable  degree  in  mathematics.  In  such  studies  as  litera- 
ture, where  appreciation  is  the  predominant  factor,  a  rapid 
tempo  would  be  destructive  of  the  finer  feelings  which  the 
lesson  aims  to  arouse.  Naturally,  in  material  prepared  for 
the  day,  especially  where  memory  plays  a  prominent  part,  a 
more  rapid  tempo  is  usually  called  for.  On  the  whole,  the 
greater  the  degree  of  thought  or  feeling,  the  slower  the  tempo, 
while  the  process  of  application  or  drill  calls  for  a  more  rapid 
movement,  and  an  implication  of  this  is  that  in  general  the 
tempo  is  slower  in  upper  classes  than  in  lower.  As  Professor 
Miinch1  has  pointed  out,  the  true  aim  is  an  inner  tempo, 
determined  in  part  by  the  character  of  the  thought,  in  part 
by  the  personality  of  the  pupils  and  teacher.  Mere  hurry 
does  not  mean  a  high  tempo,  but  probably  even  the  oppo- 
site. One  of  the  chief  tasks  of  the  teacher,  therefore,  is  to 
choose  and  regulate  the  pace  with  which  the  class  exercise 
proceeds,  holding  in  check  the  impetuous  and  prodding  the 
laggard.  It  is  here  that  setting  a  time  limit  upon  work  serves 
the  double  purpose  of  preventing  dawdling  and  suggesting 
to  the  student  a  suitable  tempo  for  intellectual  activity. 

5.    SUMMARY 

The  term  "class  exercise"  is  more  suitable  for  the  typical 
classroom  instruction  than  the  word  "recitation,"  since  it  is 
more  suggestive  of  thought  and  action  rather  than  mere  re- 
citing. 

1  Miinch,  "Geist  des  Lehramts,"  pp.  408-409. 


54  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

In  the  class  exercise,  provision  must  be  made  for  the 
exercise  and  development  of  the  personality  of  both  pupil 
and  teacher.  However,  distracting  mannerisms  and  pecu- 
liarities must  be  avoided. 

The  best  results  are  possible  only  when  the  mood  of  both 
teacher  and  class  is  cheerful,  and  the  glow  of  enthusiasm  per- 
vades the  work. 

Provision  must  be  made  for  the  most  general  and  well- 
distributed  activity  on  the  part  of  the  class,  with  all  distract- 
ing influences  provided  against,  and  with  a  tempo  in  harmony 
with  the  character  of  the  instruction. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Some  one  has  suggested  the  elimination  of  the  formal  class 
exercise,  and  the  substitution  of  a  kind  of  work-room  plan,  whereby 
each  pupil  studies  independently  and  recites  and  receives  instruction 
and  advice  as  the  progress  of  his  study  demands.     What  are  the  ad- 
vantages and  disadvantages  of  such  a  plan? 

2.  Some  able  persons  refuse  to  enter  the  teaching  profession  be- 
cause, they  say,  it  destroys  the  personality  of  the  teacher.     How 
would  you  answer  their  claim? 

3.  Some  parents  prefer  private  tutors  to  public  schools,  claiming 
that  the  latter  "level  down"  as  well  as  "level  up,"  and  that  they  pre- 
vent the  development  of  pupils'  personality.     Criticise  their  argument. 

4.  When  before  the  class  exercise  the  teacher  finds  himself  suffering 
from  a  "grouch,"  should  he  dismiss  his  class?     If  not,  what  alternative 
is  open  to  him  ? 

5.  Is  it  possible  for  pupils  to  experience  the  "glow"  of  interest 
when  the  instruction  is  really  meaningless  and  gets  nowhere? 

6.  When  half  of  the  class  in  geometry  or  Latin  are  working  at  the 
board,  how  may  the  remainder  of  the  class  be  kept  profitably  active? 

7.  Are   tempo   and  speed  of  progress  coincident?     Justify  your 
answer. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

De  Garmo,  "Interest  and  Education,"  chap.  X. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  QUESTION 
i.    ITS  FUNCTION 

As  employed  by  the  teacher  in  the  class  exercise,  the 
question  may  have  a  function  quite  different  from  that  in 
the  ordinary  situations  of  life.  Usually  its  purpose  is  the 
securing  of  information  possessed  by  the  person  addressed 
but  not  by  the  questioner.  The  instructor,  however,  gen- 
erally knows  the  answer  to  his  question  much  more  ade- 
quately than  the  student,  and  in  such  a  case  his  aim  is  to 
bring  to  the  student's  mind  a  consciousness  of  an  intellectual 
need.  "Why  should  President  Jackson's  simplicity  of  man- 
ner of  life  occasion  so  much  comment  on  the  part  of  his  con- 
temporaries?" "Is  there  not  a  simpler  and  better  method 
of  factoring  this  expression  than  the  method  you  have  em- 
ployed?" A  question  such  as  these  leads  the  student  to 
realize  that  the  information  involved  or  fact  sought  is  not 
yet  clearly  mastered  by  him,  but  needs  further  reflection, 
observation,  or  memorizing.  Its  value,  therefore,  lies  pri- 
marily in  its  stimulating  effect  upon  the  pupil,  inciting  him 
to  more  adequately  master  the  situation  confronting  him, 
and  perhaps  suggesting  to  him  a  line  of  thought  for  doing  so. 
In  addition,  it  may  serve  the  teacher  as  a  means  for  testing 
the  pupil's  knowledge,  as  a  basis  for  further  instruction. 
"What  did  we  decide  yesterday  was  the  cause  of  the  mean- 
dering of  rivers  in  level  country?"  The  situation  may  not 
be  one  in  which  knowledge  is  the  chief  factor  or  even  an 
important  one.  Rather  one  of  the  best  uses  of  the  question 
is  to  induce  an  emotional  attitude,  by  thus  calling  attention 
to  some  phase  of  an  appreciation-situation.  "Why  do  you 
think  the  opening  lines  of  'Evangeline'  so  impressive?" 

55 


56  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

Moreover,  grammatically  it  may  not  take  the  form  of  a  ques- 
tion at  all,  though  functioning  as  one.  Many  an  excellent 
and  typical  question  in  the  class  exercise  is  followed  not  by 
an  interrogation  point  but  by  a  period.  "If  we  increase  the 
weight  of  the  bob  on  this  pendulum,  we  might  perhaps  expect 
it  to  affect  the  rate  of  vibration."  As  the  term  is  thus  used, 
it  is  obvious  that  the  question  plays  a  large  part  in  the  work 
of  instruction,  and  its  character  and  forms  are  more  vital 
than  the  inexperienced  teacher  might  at  first  suppose. 

2.    KINDS  OF  QUESTIONS 

Classifications. — The  chief  aim  of  the  question,  as  we 
have  seen,  is  to  provoke  mental  activity  on  the  part  of  the 
student,  and  occasionally  to  test  his  knowledge  and  attitude. 
For  the  accomplishing  of  these  purposes,  questions  are  of 
various  types,  each  adapted  in  form  to  the  particular  type  of 
thought  or  reaction  which  it  seeks  to  secure.  Professor  Char- 
ters1 recognizes  but  three  kinds  of  questions  in  teaching — the 
information,  the  developing,  and  the  test.  De  Garmo2  sug- 
gests four  types,  the  analytical,  the  developmental,  the  re- 
view, and  the  examination.  We  are  indebted  to  Professor 
Stevens,3  of  Columbia  University  Teachers  College,  for  a 
classification  which  with  some  modifications  we  shall  follow 
in  the  present  chapter. 

The  Memory  Question  is  doubtless  the  simplest  of  the 
types,  calling  for  merely  a  recital  by  the  student  of  facts 
already  stored  in  memory,  and  in  the  recital  calling  for  but 
the  lowest  type  and  degree  of  thought.  The  memory  de- 
manded may  be  mere  verbal  or  rote  memory,  which  is  but 
little  better  than  mechanical;  or  it  may  be  logical  memory,  in 
which  the  qualities  of  the  thing  remembered  are,  by  associa- 
tion, made  the  basis  for  its  retention.  In  either  case  the 

1  Charters,  "Methods  of  Teaching,"  p.  300. 
1  De  Garmo,  "  Interest  and  Education,"  p.  180. 
*  Stevens,  unpublished  lectures. 


THE   QUESTION  57 

aim  is  almost  solely  informational.  "In  what  year  did  the 
battle  of  Saratoga  occur?"  and  "What  was  the  occasion  of 
Webster's  second  Bunker  Hill  oration?"  are  illustrations  of 
memory  questions. 

The  Analytic  Question  is,  as  the  name  implies,  used  in 
analyzing  a  unit  of  thought,  showing  its  implications  and  its 
relation  to  other  known  facts.  The  analysis  may  serve  the 
purpose  of  showing  the  instructor  whether  the  student's  con- 
cepts are  correct  and  adequate,  and  thus  offering  opportunity 
for  a  needed  reconstruction.  For  example:  "What  is  the 
locus  of  all  points  in  a  plane  equidistant  from  a  point  without 
the  plane?"  "Why  do  cyclones  in  the  northern  hemisphere 
have  a  counter-clockwise  direction  of  rotation?" 

The  Development  Question,  while  probably  the  most 
difficult  to  define,  ranks  high  in  value  as  a  means  of  instruc- 
tion. Its  chief  characteristic  is  its  anticipatory  character, 
for  it  aims  to  lead  on  the  student  from  point  to  point,  from 
the  implied  and  related,  and  ever  for  the  sake  of  attaining 
some  goal  of  which  the  teacher  is  constantly  conscious.  A 
feature  true  in  a  measure  of  all  types  of  question,  but  espe- 
cially of  the  development  question,  is  that  it  is  seldom  to  be 
taken  singly  but  as  one  of  a  series  or  sequence.  The  devel- 
opment process  is  necessarily  a  step-by-step  procedure,  em- 
ploying often  a  considerable  number  of  intermediate  terms 
and  thought  movements  in  passing  from  the  original  thought 
material  to  the  end  sought.  Accordingly,  each  question  but 
serves  the  purpose  of  developing  these  steps,  one  after  the 
other,  under  the  guidance  of  the  instructor.  A  series  of 
questions  whereby  the  teacher  leads  his  pupils  from  the 
(known)  method  of  multiplying  a  polynomial  by  a  monomial 
to  the  (unknown)  method  of  multiplying  a  polynomial  by  a 
polynomial  would  serve  as  an  illustration  from  the  field  of 
mathematics.  Another  example,  taken  from  physical  geog- 
raphy, might  be  the  procedure,  by  questioning,  from  the  stu- 
dent's knowledge  of  the  principles  of  erosion  to  the  concept 
of  the  delta  or  estuary. 


58  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

The  Comparison-Contrast  type  of  question  is  one  in 
which  two  objects  of  thought  are  simultaneously  studied  in 
order  that  the  characteristics  of  the  one  may  serve  to  the 
better  study  of  the  other.  The  comparison  question  is  of 
service  in  showing  points  of  resemblance  between  the  things 
studied,  thus  providing  data  for  generalizations,  whereas  the 
contrast  question  has  the  peculiar  function  of  accenting  char- 
acteristic features  of  an  object  of  thought  by  viewing  it  simul- 
taneously with  one  or  more  other  objects  which,  like  it  in 
many  points,  are  conspicuously  different  in  the  point  in  ques- 
tion. It  follows  that  the  number  of  situations  in  which  these 
questions  can  be  used  is  somewhat  limited.  Things  com- 
pared or  contrasted  must  be  markedly  similar  in  vital  points, 
with  only  one  or,  at  most,  very  few  features  of  strong  differ- 
ence. In  all  cases,  the  basis  of  comparison  or  contrast  should 
be  made  clear  in  the  question.  Thus,  to  secure  a  generaliza- 
tion regarding  the  literary  character  of  the  romanticism  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  it  might  be  of  profit  to  compare  the 
writings  of  Coleridge  and  Wordsworth,  whereas  a  deeper  im- 
pression of  Wordsworth's  tendency  toward  the  mysterious  in 
the  interpretation  of  the  common  things  of  life  is  well  secured 
by  contrasting  his  writings  with  those  of  Coleridge,  in  which 
the  opposite  tendency  prevails. 

The  Judgment  Question  is  a  type  which  is  peculiarly  ap- 
propriate in  secondary  instruction,  since  it  demands  a  stage 
of  mental  development  to  which  the  high  school  student  has 
attained  to  a  far  greater  degree  than  the  pupil  in  the  grammar 
grades.  The  act  of  judging  involves  a  weighing  of  values 
and  a  viewing  of  things  in  perspective.  The  personal  factor 
plays  a  large  part  here,  for  the  judgment  question  makes  a 
direct  appeal  to  the  pupil's  personal  attitude  toward  things. 
By  its  means  he  may  be  led  to  see  that  the  most  important 
consideration  in  life  is  not  knowledge  but  one's  reaction  to 
that  knowledge.  It  thus  furnishes  one  of  the  best  means 
for  the  development  of  the  ethical  and  aesthetic  ideals,  and 
thus  forms  the  basis  for  the  training  of  moral  character  and 


THE   QUESTION  59 

of  aesthetic  appreciation.  The  following  are  examples  of  the 
judgment  question.  "Would  it  be  better  to  solve  this  equa- 
tion by  comparison  or  by  substitution?"  "What  do  you 
think  was  Shakespeare's  purpose  in  introducing  the  sleep- 
walking scene  in  'Macbeth'?*'  "Was  John  Brown  morally 
justified  in  his  attempt  to  incite  an  uprising  of  the  slaves?" 

Pedagogic  Relationship  of  the  Types. — In  our  classifica- 
tion of  questions  according  to  the  purpose  which  each  is  to 
serve,  it  is  but  natural  that  a  single  question  should  serve 
more  than  one  purpose,  and  that  the  classes  should  accord- 
ingly overlap.  A  question  whose  immediate  aim  is  analysis 
or  comparison  may  at  the  same  time  serve  as  a  member  in 
a  development  series.  The  line  of  differentiation  between 
comparison  and  judgment  questions  is  obviously  not  a  sharp 
one.  To  the  thoughtful  teacher,  however,  the  recognition  of 
the  various  aims  in  questioning  may  be  of  inestimable  value 
in  his  use  of  this  the  most  common  instrument  in  classroom 
instruction. 

Any  positive  statement  regarding  the  relative  value  of 
the  various  types  of  questions  would  be  hard  to  make.  Nat- 
urally the  memory  question  would  rank  lowest  in  the  list, 
since  it  involves  the  least  intellectual  activity.  The  judg- 
ment question,  on  the  other  hand,  demands  a  high  level  of 
thought,  and  is  to  a  considerable  degree  a  climax  to  the 
thinking  of  the  other  types.  Accordingly  it  has  a  somewhat 
limited  opportunity  of  application,  though  its  great  educative 
value  justifies  a  far  more  extended  use  than  it  now  receives. 
Of  the  other  three,  viz.,  the  analytic,  the  development,  and 
the  comparison-contrast,  the  value  is  so  great  and  the  appli- 
cation so  general  that  these  three  are  probably  the  most  ser- 
viceable and  the  most  used  in  instruction. 

3.    THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  GOOD  QUESTIONING 

At  the  beginning  of  the  present  chapter  we  saw  that  the 
purpose  of  questioning  is  to  make  the  student  conscious  of  an 


60  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

intellectual  need,  to  lead  him  to  feel  the  challenge  of  a  prob- 
lem, and  to  suggest  the  way  in  which  to  look  for  the  solution. 
On  the  teacher's  part,  it  serves  the  further  purpose  of  testing 
the  knowledge  and  the  point  of  view  of  the  student.  It  is 
obvious  that  questioning  is  good  in  proportion  as  it  leads 
toward  the  realization  of  any  or  all  of  these  aims,  and  the 
following  suggestions  may  help  the  teacher  in  that  direction. 

1.  The  Question  Should,  as  a  Rule,  be  Thought- Provok- 
ing.— This  does  not  mean  that  memory  questions  should 
never  be  asked,  but  that  they  should  be  decidedly  in  the 
minority,  and  that  when  introduced  they  should  if  possible 
be  but  leaders  to  thought  questions.     Close  following  of  the 
text-book  is  necessarily  detrimental  to  good  questioning,  since 
the  student  has  no  obligation  to  think  out  his  answer,  but  is 
encouraged  to  rely  upon  the  memory  of  what  he  learned  in 
preparing  his  lesson.     In  much  the  same  way,  the  adherence 
to  arbitrary  classifications,  arrangement,  or  names  suggested 
by  the  teacher  himself  is  open  to  a  similar  criticism,  since  it 
encourages  the  substitution  of  formulas  of  words  for  the 
product  of  the  student's  own  thought.     If  the  teacher  will 
rethink  his  subject  matter,  and  in  some  measure  at  least 
reconstruct  it,  using  new  avenues  of  approach  to  the  princi- 
ples and  new  illustrations  of  them,  and  encourage  his  pupils 
to  do  the  same,  the  thought  factor  will  become  much  more 
prominent  and  beneficial,  as  well  as  interesting. 

2.  The  Question  Must  Be  Clear. — This  is  involved  in  the 
aim  of  questioning  as  such,  in  that  thought  can  be  provoked 
only  in  an  attempt  to  meet  a  felt  need,  and  a  situation  which 
has  no  definite  problem  or  meaning  can  produce  nothing 
worthier    than   bewilderment.     The   use   of   a   question   so 
framed  or  propounded  that  any  of  the  student's  attention  is 
diverted  from  the  answering  of  the  question  to  the  form  of 
the  question  itself  is  not  merely  wasteful  but  disconcerting. 
It  is  essential  that  the  teacher  imagine  himself  in  the  pupil's 
place,  and  endeavor  to  see  whether  the  question  would  then 
mean  to  him  just  what  is  intended  by  it.     The  question  must 


THE   QUESTION  6 1 

first  be  clear  in  language,  using  words  and  expressions  the 
meaning  of  which  is  known  to  the  student.  Sentences  should 
be  so  constructed  that  the  antecedent  of  the  pronoun  will  be 
unmistakable.  A  prime  essential  is  that  the  teacher  think 
clearly,  since  not  a  little  of  the  obscurity  of  questions  is  but 
the  reflection  of  obscurity  of  thought.  However,  most  of  the 
lack  of  clearness  in  questioning  is  doubtless  due  to  incom- 
pleteness of  statement,  either  as  lack  of  words  or  as  indefinite- 
ness  of  expression.  The  teacher  often  fails  to  realize  that 
much  of  the  meaning  of  expressions  is  inferred  from  the  con- 
text, and  that  the  pupil's  mental  background  is  not  the  same 
as  his  own.  As  a  rule,  the  form  of  question  should  be  such 
that  but  one  line  of  answering  is  open.  "Compare  the 
triangles  ABC  and  DEF"  is  not  definite,  since  the  question 
does  not  specify  the  basis  for  comparison.  Better,  "Com- 
pare the  triangles  ABC  and  DEF  as  to  area."  The  ques- 
tion, "What  happens  when  sulphur  and  iron  filings  are 
heated  in  a  test  tube?"  needs  further  qualification ;  e.  g., 
"Describe  the  chemical  reaction  that  occurs  when  sulphur 
and  iron  filings  are  heated  in  a  test  tube."  The  direction, 
"Give  a  classification  of  rocks,"  may  be  obeyed  by  clas- 
sifying them  according  to  either  color,  structure,  weight, 
chemical  composition,  or  method  of  formation.  "What  did 
Charlemagne  do  when  he  became  king?"  may  be  correctly 
answered  in  any  of  a  dozen  ways.  The  mere  fact  that  a 
poorly  formulated  question  has  elicited  the  desired  answer  is 
no  vindication  of  the  form  of  the  question.  On  the  con- 
trary, its  seeming  effectiveness  will  tend  to  lead  the  pupil  to 
believe  that  slovenliness  in  speech  is  no  disgrace  so  long  as  it 
secures  the  desired  result. 

3.  The  Question  Should  Be  Brief. — As  a  rule,  a  question 
is  selective  in  that  it  specifies  one  particular  feature  of  a  situ- 
ation and  raises  the  problem  regarding  that  feature,  the 
other  features  being  mentioned  merely  by  way  of  specifying 
the  situation.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  the  best  question  is 
one  that  touches  merely  the  problematic  element,  with  a 


62  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

minimum  of  other  data  necessary  for  the  definiteness  of  the 
problem  itself.  The  following  problem  will  serve  as  an  il- 
lustration: "A  certain  freight  train  travels  at  the  rate  of 
twenty  miles  per  hour  westward  from  Boston.  An  express 
train,  starting  over  the  same  route  thirty  minutes  behind  the 
freight  train,  travels  at  the  rate  of  fifty  miles  per  hour.  How 
far  from  Boston  will  the  express  overtake  the  freight?"  In 
this  case  all  details  of  the  situation  are  first  specified  except 
the  one  referred  to  in  the  last  sentence.  Here  the  brevity  of 
the  question  is  secured  by  the  isolation  of  the  problematic 
element  to  form  the  question,  the  situation  having  already 
been  stated.  The  problem  might  have  been  stated  thus:  "If 
an  express  train,  travelling  westward  from  Boston  at  a  rate 
of  fifty  miles  per  hour,  is  preceded  by  a  freight  train  travelling 
twenty  miles  per  hour,  how  far  from  Boston  will  the  freight 
be  overtaken  by  the  express  if  it  starts  thirty  minutes  ahead 
of  the  express?  The  superiority  of  the  first  statement  is 
obvious,  since  the  situation  is  put  clearly  to  the  student  before 
its  problematic  factor  is  introduced,  thus  leaving  the  question 
direct  and  brief.  Thus:  "If  at  the  battle  of  Saratoga  Bur- 
goyne  had  defeated  the  Americans,  and  after  pushing  his 
way  to  the  southward  had  effected  a  junction  with  British 
naval  forces  sent  up  the  Hudson,  what  would  probably  have 
been  the  effect  upon  the  American  cause,  with  the  colonial 
territory  thus  cut  in  two?"  A  better  statement  would  be 
the  following:  "Let  us  suppose  that  Burgoyne  had  been  vic- 
torious at  Saratoga;  that  he  had  pushed  his  way  to  the  south- 
ward, and  had  effected  a  junction  with  British  naval  forces 
sent  up  the  Hudson.  Evidently  the  colonial  territory  would 
thereby  be  cut  in  two.  What  effect  would  this  probably 
have  had  upon  the  American  cause?"  The  oft-given  advice, 
"Make  your  question  brief,"  means  to  the  teacher  merely 
this:  First  state  the  situation  fully  and  clearly.  Then  isolate 
the  one  problematic  factor,  and  indicate  it  in  a  question  as 
briefly  as  possible.  Introduce  but  one  problematic  factor  at 
a  tune,  avoiding  the  use  of  double  questions,  such  as  "How 


THE   QUESTION  63 

would  you  generate  carbon  monoxide  in  the  laboratory  and 
what  precautions  must  be  observed  in  the  process?"  "How 
do  you  account  for  the  case  of  homine  in  this  sentence,  and 
why  would  not  viro  have  been  a  better  word  to  use?"  The 
observance  of  the  suggestions  just  made  will  assist  the  teacher 
in  making  questions  both  brief  and  clear  at  the  same  time, 
for  brevity  and  clarity  should  be  allies  rather  than  antago- 
nists. 

4.  The  Question  Must  Be  Adapted  to  the  Student. — This 
includes  adaptation  to  his  age,  interests,  disposition,  previous 
study,  and  experience.  He  should  not  be  asked  to  form  judg- 
ments when  his  experience  is  too  narrow  to  provide  the  basis 
for  the  judgment.  Reflection  upon  a  topic  which  has  no 
interest  to  him  will  necessarily  be  merely  formal.  A  question 
that  is  so  simple  that  the  student  feels  annoyance  at  its  pet- 
tiness or  its  very  elementary  character  has  no  educational 
value.  In  other  words,  the  question  must  be  a  real  ques- 
tion for  the  person  to  whom  it  is  addressed.  Moreover,  the 
state  of  mind  of  students  varies  widely  at  different  times. 
Personal  feeling,  difficulty  of  content,  or  any  of  a  dozen 
causes  may  occasion  a  condition  of  antagonism,  overconfi- 
dence,  indifference,  or  the  like,  which  a  well-chosen  question 
will  greatly  help. 

4.    THE  MANNER  OF  QUESTIONING 

It  is  not  enough  to  have  good  tools,  but  they  must  be  well 
used.  Good  questions  are  most  effectual  only  when  the 
manner  in  which  they  are  put  is  well  chosen,  and  the  inexperi- 
enced teacher  may  find  the  following  suggestions  of  value. 

i.  Address  questions  to  the  class  as  a  whole,  give  time  for 
the  answer  to  be  formulated,  and  then  call  upon  one  to  answer 
as  spokesman  for  the  class,  insisting  upon  a  ready  answer. 
This  means  that  every  student  will  formulate  an  answer  to 
each  question  that  is  asked,  and  will  be  ready  and  disposed 
to  judge  of  the  merit  of  the  answer  given  by  the  student  who 


64  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

answers  for  the  class.  When  we  realize  that  the  chief  aim  of 
the  question  is  the  stimulation  of  thought,  it  can  readily  be 
seen  that  where  every  student  is  thus  actively  answering 
every  question,  the  activity  of  the  class  is  fully  distributed 
and  the  benefit  of  answering  is  gained  by  every  student,  even 
though  the  pupil  called  upon  has  the  extra  benefit  of  the  ex- 
pression of  his  thought.  Even  though  this  often  involves  a 
slower  rate  of  questioning,  the  economy  is  great  since  each 
question  benefits  all  instead  of  a  few  or  possibly  only  one  of 
the  class.  Indeed,  the  judgment  constantly  passed  by  the 
class  upon  the  answer  given,  since  based  upon  their  own 
thought,  is  of  no  little  value,  and  serves  in  a  measure  as  a 
counter-criticism  upon  the  answers  they  themselves  had  for- 
mulated though  not  expressed.  It  is  evident  that  the  prac- 
tice of  calling  the  name  of  the  student  before  stating  the 
question  is  as  clear  a  violation  of  this  principle  as  could  be 
devised,  although  a  mistake  of  which  teachers  are  very  often 
guilty. 

2.  From  this  naturally  follows  a  second  injunction.  Dis- 
tribute the  questions,  as  far  as  possible,  among  "all  the  mem- 
bers of  the  class.  This  must,  of  course,  be  in  an  order  which 
seems  to  the  class  to  be  haphazard.  Calling  on  students  in 
alphabetical  order,  in  the  order  of  the  seating,  or  in  any 
arrangement  whereby  they  can  anticipate  which  one  will  be 
called  upon  next  will,  of  course,  result  in  the  others  assuming 
an  attitude  of  unconcern,  and  much  of  the  benefit  of  the 
work  will  be  lost  to  them,  if  not  to  the  one  who  answers  the 
question. 

In  the  distribution  of  questions  in  the  class  exercise,  it  is 
not  sufficient  nor  is  it  always  wise  to  address  the  same  num- 
ber or  kind  to  each  student.  There  should  be  an  adaptation 
of  question  to  student,  and  the  variation  between  students  is 
usually  great.  Since  the  greatest  gain  comes  from  activity 
in  which  the  fullest  power  of  the  individual  is  exercised,  it 
follows  that  the  question  put  to  the  bright  pupil  should  be  of 
a  different  sort  from  that  put  to  the  dull  student.  This  does 


THE  QUESTION  65 

not  mean  that  the  bright  pupil  should  have  the  hard  question 
and  the  dull  one  the  easy  question,  though  this  will  not  infre- 
quently follow.  It  means  rather  that  each  question  shall  be 
so  formulated  that  it  will  stimulate  to  his  best  thought  that 
student  to  whom  it  is  addressed.  The  case  of  the  slow  stu- 
dent is  more  puzzling.  Slowness  does  not  necessarily  imply 
dulness,  and  if  given  time  the  slow  student  will  often  pro- 
duce a  fine  piece  of  work.  Practically  all  that  can  be  sug- 
gested here  is  that  he  too  exert  serious  effort  and  be  con- 
stantly kept  at  his  best  speed.  However,  his  "best  speed" 
is  never  possible  when  he  is  hurried  to  the  point  of  bewilder- 
ment, but  must  be  determined  empirically,  in  the  course  of 
the  teacher's  observation. 

But  other  considerations  besides  the  abilities  of  the  stu- 
dents determine  the  distribution  of  the  questions.  The 
teacher  must  study  each  of  his  pupils  and  so  far  as  possible 
adapt  the  questions  to  meet  special  needs.  As  one  of  the 
aims  of  questioning  is  the  discovery  of  inaccuracy  or  inade- 
quacy in  the  student's  concept  or  memory  image,  the  teacher 
should  endeavor  to  place  his  question  where  it  is  probably 
most  needed.  The  student  who  half  knows  his  lesson  can 
best  be  brought  to  a  consciousness  of  his  shortcomings  by  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  answer  questions  about  it.  A  natural 
implication  of  this  is  the  wisdom  of  putting  the  question  to 
the  student  who  failed  upon  it  before,  possibly  at  the  preced- 
ing class  exercise,  thus  providing  an  added  incentive  for  mas- 
tering the  points  in  his  lesson  upon  which  he  has  shown  him- 
self to  be  deficient.  Often,  too,  the  bright  and  faithful  stu- 
dent can,  by  a  well-chosen  question,  be  started  on  a  train  of 
thought  which  has  a  special  appeal  for  his  personal  interests 
and  ability,  and  which  will  provide  him  a  thought  problem 
for  further  consideration  outside  of  class.  The  question  thus 
serves  as  a  thought  stimulant  and  clarifier,  and  the  careful 
teacher  will  place  the  question  where  it  will  be  of  most  ser- 
vice. The  device  of  addressing  a  question  to  a  pupil  who  is 
inattentive  at  the  moment  it  is  stated  is  frequently  of  service 


66  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

in  compelling  attention,  especially  if  his  consequent  confusion 
be  utilized  to  render  inattention  unprofitable.  At  the  same 
time  the  teacher  should  employ  the  opportunity  to  find  out 
the  cause  for  the  inattention,  especially  if  the  case  is  at  all 
chronic.  Inability  to  hear  the  teacher,  disorder  on  the  part 
of  neighbors,  failure  to  see  the  meaning  of  the  lesson,  lack  of 
interest — any  or  all  of  these  might  be  the  cause  of  the  inat- 
tention, and  an  understanding  of  the  situation  would  assist 
in  its  solution.  It  must  be  remembered  that  inattention  is 
but  the  symptom,  not  the  disease,  and  the  teacher  who  can 
adequately  diagnose  the  case  in  its  first  stages  has  progressed 
far  toward  its  cure. 

Should  a  question  be  repeated  if  not  understood  the  first 
tune  ?  Naturally  it  depends  upon  the  cause  of  the  failure  to 
understand.  If  it  be  due  to  inattention,  it  is  evident  that  a 
repetition  of  the  question  usually  amounts  to  a  toleration  of 
inattention,  and  is  seldom  wise.  If  the  cause  be  a  lack  of 
clearness  in  the  question  itself,  it  should  be  reconstructed. 
If  the  difficulty  lay  in  the  indistinctness  of  the  teacher's  enun- 
ciation, not  merely  should  it  be  repeated  with  greater  care, 
but  it  should  suggest  to  the  teacher  the  possibility  that  on 
other  occasions  also  his  spoken  words  may  not  be  under- 
stood, though  the  difficulty  had  not  been  reported  by  the 
class.  On  the  other  hand,  the  failure  to  understand  may  be 
due  merely  to  the  thought  character  of  the  question  itself, 
being  properly  formulated  but  requiring  time  for  the  realiza- 
tion of  its  significance  as  it  is  spoken.  In  such  case,  a  de- 
liberate repetition  in  its  original  form  would  usually  be  less 
confusing  than  its  restatement  in  other  words. 

3.  A  third  suggestion  of  the  manner  of  questioning  is  that 
the  teacher  ask  the  question  as  though  he  himself  is  really 
interested  in  its  answer.  Mood  is  the  most  contagious  thing 
in  the  schoolroom,  and  the  teacher  who  is  able  to  so  throw 
his  personality  into  his  questions  that  his  class  will  recognize 
his  interest  will  have  made  an  excellent  beginning  toward 
interesting  instruction. 


THE   QUESTION  67 


5.  THE  QUESTION  AS  AN  INDEX  OF  EFFICIENCY  IN  TEACHING 

In  a  monograph  which  bears  the  same  title  as  this  para- 
graph1 a  very  suggestive  effort  is  made  to  show  that  the 
character  and  quality  of  classroom  instruction  can  with  com- 
parative accuracy  be  discovered  by  a  study  of  the  character 
of  the  questioning.  Two  points  of  observation  are  suggested: 
how  many  questions  and  how  good  questions.  With  the  lat- 
ter of  these,  the  quality  of  the  question,  we  have  already 
dealt. 

The  number  of  questions  is  taken  as  a  partial  indicator  of 
the  distribution  of  activity  between  teacher  and  class.  In 
the  monograph  the  author,  Professor  Stevens,  made  a  study 
of  a  number  of  typical  class  exercises  observed  in  various 
high  schools  and  found  that  the  number  of  questions  asked 
by  the  teacher  ranged  from  about  40  to  175  or  200,  during  a 
forty-five-minute  class  hour,  the  average  being  between  75 
and  loo.  Taking  account  of  the  pupils'  answers  as  well,  and 
basing  the  calculation  upon  the  time  occupied  in  questioning, 
it  was  discovered  that  the  teacher  used  about  two-thirds  of 
the  lesson  hour  with  questioning,  exposition,  etc.,  and  that 
the  pupils  occupied  but  half  that  amount.  In  other  words, 
the  teacher  used  twice  as  much  time  as  his  class  did,  and 
presumably  did  two-thirds  of  the  work.  Moreover,  it  showed 
that  on  an  average  the  teacher  asks  and  the  class  answers 
one  question  every  thirty  seconds.  Such  distribution  and 
haste  in  teaching  are  practically  destructive  of  thought  and 
reflection  on  the  part  of  the  student.  Naturally  the  number 
of  questions  and  the  distribution  of  time  between  teacher  and 
class  vary  greatly  according  to  conditions,  such  as  the  subject 
studied  and  the  aim  of  the  class  exercise,  but  the  teacher  may 
well  guard  against  too  long-continued  "rapid-fire"  question- 
ing, as  well  as  against  occupying  an  undue  proportion  of 
the  lesson  hour. 

1  Stevens,  "The  Question  as  an  Index  of  Efficiency  in  Teaching." 


68  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 


6.    THE  ANSWER 

Essentials  of  the  Good  Answer. — As  the  purpose  of  the 
question  was  shown  to  be  the  stimulation  of  thought,  the 
primary  purpose  of  the  answer  is  the  expression  of  that 
thought,  with  its  critique  and  suggested  ideas.  It  has  also 
as  a  secondary  aim  the  disclosure  to  the  teacher  of  the  stu- 
dent's thought,  and  the  offering  of  opportunity  for  the  im- 
provement of  that  thought  and  its  expression.  The  good  an- 
swer is  one  that  serves  these  purposes. 

In  the  first  place,  the  answer  must  be  adequate.  It  must, 
for  the  student  at  least,  be  "the  truth,  the  whole  truth,  and 
nothing  but  the  truth."  The  algebra  student  who,  when 
asked  to  find  the  area  of  a  field,  closes  his  work  with  "x  =  36, 
Ans.,"  has  not  adequately  answered  the  question.  He  has 
merely  brought  his  work  to  the  point  where  the  answer  might 
be  easily  inferred,  but  left  the  inference  itself  for  the  instructor 
to  draw.  He  has  not  told  the  "whole  truth."  When  the 
pupil  stated  that  in  the  flexion  of  the  elbow- joint  the  biceps 
muscle  grows  smaller,  he  has  given  an  inadequate  answer. 
The  pupil  who  was  asked  to  decline  a  noun  in  the  singular 
and  declined  it  in  both  numbers,  gave  an  inadequate  answer. 
Both  these  two  violated  the  principle  "Nothing  but  the 
truth."  When  a  student  realizes  that  he  will  be  held  ac- 
countable for  an  exact  and  complete  answer  to  the  question, 
he  will  study  the  question  carefully  in  order  to  catch  the 
full  significance  of  the  problem. 

A  second  requirement  of  the  good  answer  is  that  it  shall 
be  matured.  The  teacher  who  accepts  an  answer  which  does 
not  represent  the  student's  best  thought  is  encouraging  care- 
less thinking.  In  contrast  to  a  common  attitude  among  stu- 
dents that  the  answer  is  merely  to  satisfy  the  teacher,  and 
that  whatever  thus  satisfies  is  all  that  is  called  for,  the  stu- 
dent must  be  led  to  take  his  answer  seriously.  The  teacher 
should  develop  the  student's  self-criticism,  so  that  he  will  be 


THE   QUESTION  69 

dissatisfied  with  any  effort  which  does  not  represent  him  at 
his  best.  The  pupil  who  replies  before  he  has  thought  the 
problem  through  must  be  restrained  until  he  is  prepared  to 
give  a  well-matured  answer.  This  can  often  be  done  by 
showing  him  the  absurdity  or  inconsistency  of  his  hasty 
replies,  and  by  holding  him  to  strict  account  for  all  that  he 
says.  If,  as  should  be  the  case,  the  answer  is  addressed  to 
the  class  as  a  whole,  the  members  of  the  class  will  add  their 
disapproval  to  that  of  the  teacher  when  one  of  their  number 
seems  to  be  careless  in  his  words  addressed  to  them.  On  the 
other  hand,  this  personal  responsibility  for  the  answers  to 
questions  should  not  be  permitted  to  lead  to  undue  hesitancy 
in  answering.  The  pupil  whose  reply  to  a  question  is  itself 
a  question  or  a  guess  with  a  rising  inflection  of  the  voice 
should  not  hope  thereby  to  escape  responsibility  for  its 
accuracy.  The  answer  should  be  his  own  thought  or  belief, 
not  that  of  the  teacher,  and  if  he  is  prompted  in  answering, 
the  purpose  of  the  question  is  thwarted.  Not  infrequently 
this  prompting  is  merely  a  nod  of  the  head,  a  change  of  facial 
expression,  or  even  a  gesture,  of  which  the  teacher  is  quite 
unconscious,  and  against  which  he  must  be  constantly  on  his 
guard. 

This  suggestibility  of  students,  especially  the  younger 
ones,  may  easily  extend  to  their  making  statements  quite  con- 
trary to  their  knowledge  and  judgment.  Boys  and  girls, 
recognizing  the  superior  knowledge  of  the  teacher,  will  give 
assent  to  almost  anything,  if  it  seems  to  be  what  the  teacher 
expects  them  to  say.  Such  answering  involves  the  suspen- 
sion of  their  own  judgment  in  the  presence  of  a  higher  author- 
ity, which  is  thus  accepted  without  challenge  or  thought 
concerning  its  implications.  One  of  the  values  of  the  topical 
recitation  is  that  this  suggestion  factor  in  questioning  is  elimi- 
nated. 

The  Topical  Recitation. — As  one  of  the  chief  purposes  of 
the  answer  is  the  expression  of  thought,  the  topical  recitation 
is  of  especial  value  because  of  the  training  it  offers  in  thought 


70  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

expression.  When  the  class  exercise  takes  the  form  of  a 
mere  series  of  questions,  the  task  of  organizing  thought,  which 
is  one  of  the  greatest  benefits  of  educational  training,  is  taken 
over  by  the  teacher,  to  the  great  loss  of  the  child.  As  a  test 
of  the  evaluation  and  perspective  in  knowledge,  of  power  to 
analyze  thought,  and  of  ability  to  express  ideas  in  language, 
the  topical  recitation  has  a  value  immensely  superior  to  that 
of  brief  one-sentence  answers.  Unfortunately,  the  develop- 
ment of  power  to  give  such  an  independent  and  connected 
recitation  is  usually  difficult  to  secure.  The  teacher  must 
first  show  the  student  how  to  select  the  important  points  of 
a  topic,  how  to  arrange  them  in  logical  order,  and  how  to 
transform  the  ideas  into  well-chosen  language.  Often  a  dis- 
cussion with  the  class  in  which  these  three  steps  are  worked 
through  in  order  will  prove  the  best  method  of  preparing  the 
foundation  for  a  subsequent  topical  recitation.  The  process 
may  at  first  appear  long  and  laborious,  but  the  cost  is  small 
compared  with  the  importance  of  training  young  people  to 
discourse  connectedly  and  creditably  upon  topics  with  which 
they  are  familiar.  The  efforts  made  by  so  many  of  our  high 
school  students  when  trying  to  speak  in  public  upon  even 
the  simplest  themes  are  at  best  disheartening,  and  the  correc- 
tion of  the  difficulty  is  as  truly  a  task  for  the  teacher  of  physics 
or  of  history  as  for  the  English  department. 

Adequacy  of  Expression. — The  importance  of  adequate 
expression  holds  no  less  of  the  brief  answer  as  well.  The 
answer  should  be  given  in  a  form  worthy  of  the  thought 
which  it  represents.  The  carelessly  worded,  poorly  articu- 
lated replies  so  common  in  the  schoolroom  are  negative  fac- 
tors in  education  as  far  as  training  in  oral  expression  is  con- 
cerned. The  bad  habit  on  the  part  of  teachers  of  repeating 
the  students'  answers,  often  correcting  errors  of  speech,  is  a 
prolific  source  of  carelessness  in  recitation,  since  the  students 
soon  come  to  feel  that  however  badly  they  frame  their  an- 
swers or  enunciate  their  words,  the  teacher  will  supply  the 
deficiency  in  the  amended  repetition.  If  the  student  is  made 


THE   QUESTION  71 

to  feel  that  he  is  addressing  the  class,  not  the  teacher,  and 
classes  are  trained  to  demand  the  student's  serious  efforts  in 
addressing  them,  the  occasion  for  repetition  will  soon  dis- 
appear. Every  answer  must  be  a  real  statement  of  a  thought 
rather  than  merely  an  abbreviated  skeleton  or  intimation  of 
that  thought.  While  "yes  or  no  answers"  are  not  necessarily 
to  be  avoided,  they  should  nearly  always  be  followed  up  with 
a  call  for  the  grounds  upon  which  the  affirmation  or  negation 
rests.  The  demand  that  every  answer  shall  be  a  complete 
grammatical  sentence,  while  usually  wise,  may,  however,  be 
carried  to  the  degree  of  pedantry.  Forms  of  conversation 
which  are  proper  in  cultured  society  are  proper  in  the  school- 
room— these  and  no  others.  When  student  and  teacher  catch 
the  spirit  of  culture  in  the  conversation  of  the  class  exercise, 
problems  of  propriety  in  student  answers  will  be  appreciably 
fewer. 

"As  the  teacher,  so  the  school."  As  the  question,  so  the 
answer.  The  progressive  and  conscientious  teacher  will  see 
in  the  pupil's  answer  an  index  of  the  question  asked.  Poorly 
expressed  answers  raise  the  presumption  that  the  questions 
were  poorly  expressed.  Obscurity  in  answers  suggests  a  cor- 
responding fault  in  the  questions.  Fortunate  the  teacher 
who  is  able  to  use  his  class  as  a  mirror  for  his  own  failures 
and  successes. 

7.    THE  PUPIL'S  QUESTION 

"Questioning  by  the  teacher  that  does  not  lead  to  the 
asking  of  questions  by  pupils  is  unsatisfactory."1  The  best 
incentive  to  learning  is  the  consciousness  and  challenge  of  a 
problem,  and  one  of  the  best  places  for  its  suggestion  and 
formulation,  often  of  its  solution,  is  the  class  exercise.  The 
question  asked  by  the  pupil  is  one  in  which  he  has  a  real 
interest,  and  the  teacher  who  instead  of  propounding  a  prob- 
lem can  induce  the  student  to  raise  that  problem,  even  though 
in  a  less  logical  form,  has  come  near  to  realization  of  the  aim 
1  Strayer,  "Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process,"  p.  120. 


72  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

in  questioning;  viz.,  the  stimulation  of  thought.  In  the  same 
way  the  teacher's  reply  to  the  question  may  well  be  itself  a 
question,  whereby  he  will  suggest  to  the  student  not  the  an- 
swer but  the  direction  in  which  it  may  be  sought.  In  the 
solution  the  co-operation  of  the  entire  class  should,  so  far  as 
possible,  be  enlisted,  thus  making  it  a  general  rather  than  an 
individual  problem.  For  data  upon  which  to  base  the  solu- 
tion all  sources  should  be  employed  as  needed.  Chief  of 
these  are  the  direct  observation  of  the  facts,  the  experience 
of  the  various  members  of  the  class,  the  text-book,  and,  as  a 
last  resort,  the  teacher  himself.  However,  in  his  enthusiasm 
over  the  class  problem,  the  teacher  must  not  permit  himself 
to  be  deceived  by  the  ingenious  lad  who  finds  the  asking  of 
time-killing  questions  easier  than  the  answering  of  relevant 
ones  asked  by  the  teacher.  A  definite  consciousness  of  aim, 
a  little  study  of  the  personality  of  his  pupils,  and  a  class  sen- 
timent in  favor  of  seriousness  of  work  will  suffice  to  prevent 
serious  dissipation  of  energy  or  "side-tracking"  in  the  class 
exercise. 

8.    SUMMARY 

The  functions  of  the  question  in  instruction  are  the  stimu- 
lation and  the  testing  of  mental  activity. 

Questions  are  of  five  types:  memory,  analytic,  develop- 
ment, comparison-contrast,  and  judgment. 

Questions  should  be  thought-provoking,  clear,  brief,  and 
adapted  to  the  student. 

They  should  be  addressed  to  the  class  instead  of  to  indi- 
viduals, should  be  so  distributed  among  students  as  to  secure 
general  response,  and  should  manifest  a  real  interest. 

An  excessive  number  of  questions  tends  toward  a  wrong 
distribution  of  activity  between  teacher  and  class. 

Answers  should  be  adequate,  well  matured,  and  well  ex- 
pressed. The  topical  recitation  is  of  value  in  the  training  of 
the  student  to  organize  and  to  express  his  ideas. 

The  pupil's  question  should  show  the  teacher  the  needs  of 


THE  QUESTION  73 

his  class,  and  should  be  made  the  starting-point  for  further 
learning. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  What  high  school  studies  offer  peculiar  opportunity  for  the  use 
of  the  memory  question?  the  analytic  question?  the  judgment  ques- 
tion? 

2.  Criticise  the  following  questions: 

(a)  Why  do  we  use  mercury  in  thermometers? 

(b)  What  does  our  text-book  give  as  the  date  for  the  assassina- 

tion of  Lincoln? 

(c)  Which  is  the  more  important:  political  liberty  or  religious 

liberty?    Why? 

3.  Recast  the  following  question  in  a  better  form:    If,  after  cut- 
ting a  wide  channel  across  the  plain,  a  stream  should,  at  flood  season, 
cut  across  from  one  bend  to  the  next,  what  would  become  of  the  lagoon 
thus  formed  when  the  stream  subsided? 

4.  From  the  standpoint  of  questioning,  what  are  the  objections  to 
classes  of  forty  or  more  pupils? 

5.  Is  it  unwise  to  address  a  series  of  successive  questions  to  a  single 
student?    Justify  your  answer. 

6.  How  would  you  deal  with  the  pupil  who,  though  inattentive,  is 
skilful  in  "bluffing"  when  he  does  not  know  what  question  was  asked 
him? 

7.  Suggest  ways  in  which  students  can  be  induced  to  ask  questions 
in  the  class  exercise. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READINGS 

Strayer,  "Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process,"  chap.  XI. 

Keith,  "Elementary  Education,"  §38. 

De  Garmo,  "Interest  and  Education,"  chap.  XIV. 

Colvin,  "An  Introduction  to  High  School  Teaching,"  chap.  XV. 

Stevens,  "The  Question  as  an  Index  of  Efficiency  in  Teaching." 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  RECITATION  MODE 

i.    MEANING  OF  RECITATION 

In  an  earlier  chapter  our  attention  was  called  to  the  un- 
fortunate use  of  the  term  "recitation"  to  designate  any  form 
of  class  exercise,  laboratory  work  excepted,  and  the  conse- 
quent influence  toward  making  the  class  exercise  degenerate 
into  a  mere  "reciting"  of  acquired  information.  However, 
the  inexperienced  high  school  teacher,  in  endeavoring  to 
escape  this  pedagogical  error,  often  falls  into  the  opposite 
one  of  lecturing  to  his  class,  doing  the  reciting  vicariously  for 
his  pupils.  Recitation  on  the  part  of  the  student  is  not  nec- 
essarily bad.  Like  the  other  modes  of  teaching,  it  has  its 
appropriate  place  and  its  proper  manner,  and  within  the 
limits  of  these  it  plays  a  necessary  part  which  no  other  mode 
can  fill.  Discarding  any  thought  of  it  as  a  mechanical  repeti- 
tion by  the  student  of  memorized  facts  or  phrases,  the  recita- 
tion is  taken  as  the  rethinking  in  the  class  exercise  of  the 
experience  of  the  student,  acquired  as  a  set  exercise  previously 
assigned  by  the  teacher.  In  this,  the  class  and  teacher,  as 
an  environment  for  the  rethinking,  contribute  to  render  the 
exercise  more  beneficial  to  the  pupil  who  recites,  and  in  no 
small  degree  to  the  pupil  who  listens  and  even  to  the  in- 
structor. The  function  of  the  recitation  mode  falls  primarily 
under  the  two  method  factors  of  testing  and  drill,  since  these 
two  are  the  ones  that  deal  explicitly  with  material  previously 
studied  by  the  pupil.  The  recitation  has  also  a  forward  look, 
since  in  the  organic  unity  of  a  well-organized  course  every 
fact,  every  process,  is  anticipatory  of  a  broader  fact  or  process 
to  follow  it  and  extend  its  application. 

74 


THE  RECITATION  MODE  75 


2.    THE  RECITATION  AS  TESTING 

Purpose. — The  aim  of  the  testing  activity  in  the  recitation 
mode  is  essentially  that  of  insuring  progress,  for  the  teacher 
must  assure  himself  that  the  class  is  really  accomplishing  the 
work  undertaken.  The  testing  accomplishes  this  purpose  in 
five  ways.  In  the  first  place,  it  determines  the  faithfulness  of 
the  student's  preparation  of  the  lesson  assigned  for  the  day. 
Some  one  has  said  that  the  ideal  in  education  is  that  condi- 
tion where  every  pupil  in  the  class  prepares  his  lessons  just  as 
well  without  as  with  the  incentive  of  the  teacher's  authority. 
To  this  we  reply  that  such  students  are  not  yet  to  be  found  in 
the  schools,  if  indeed  anywhere.  We  have  yet  to  hear  of  the 
person,  old  or  young,  who  does  not  find  some  measure  of 
compulsion  necessary  in  order  to  impel  him  to  the  maximum 
of  his  capacity.  Most  certainly  the  high  school  student  with 
his  limited  perspective  and  his  lack  of  training  needs  some 
compulsion  in  his  work.  In  the  testing  of  the  recitation  step, 
the  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  this  compulsion  is  pro- 
vided. Secondly,  it  determines  the  adequacy  of  the  student's 
preparation,  thereby  enabling  the  teacher  to  begin  his  in- 
struction at  the  point  where  his  pupils  have  left  off.  To 
attempt  to  lay  the  bricks  of  the  superstructure  before  the 
foundation  is  fully  completed  is  to  "build  in  the  air."  To 
determine  the  character  of  that  foundation  and  the  conse- 
quent possibilities,  limitations,  and  requirements  of  the  super- 
structure is  one  of  the  first  duties  of  the  teacher.  Thirdly, 
the  testing  enables  the  teacher  to  determine  the  adequacy  of 
the  instruction.  Many  a  teacher  flatters  himself  that  his 
pupils  have  followed  him  in  his  exposition  and  development, 
whereas  an  inadequate  or  fallacious  concept  of  the  meaning 
of  a  term,  a  misinterpretation  of  a  statement,  an  unusual 
background  of  personal  experience,  or  even  a  wandering 
imagination  may  have  resulted  in  the  student's  arriving  at 
concepts  and  conclusions  surprisingly  different  from  those  in- 


76  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

tended  by  the  teacher  and  even  actually  false.  To  discover 
to  the  teacher  this  situation  so  that  he  may  vary  his  method 
of  teaching  to  meet  better  the  student's  need  is  one  of  the 
chief  functions  of  the  testing  activity.  The  fourth  way  in 
which  progress  is  insured  by  the  testing  phase  of  the  recita- 
tion is  that  it  enables  the  teacher  to  test  the  appropriateness 
of  the  material  being  taught.  Even  the  most  experienced 
instructor  often  discovers  that  material  which  he  has  em- 
ployed successfully  for  years  is  not  adapted  to  the  class 
before  him,  and  the  necessity  for  constant  selection  and 
adaptation  is  even  greater  for  the  inexperienced  teacher. 
Other  opportunities  for  observation  offer  themselves  to  the 
teacher,  such  as  the  laboratory  and  the  responses  of  the  stu- 
dent in  the  development  of  new  work.  However,  the  prop- 
erly conducted  recitation  provides  the  best  opportunity  for 
the  testing  in  a  broad,  thorough,  and  helpful  way.  Finally, 
the  testing  element  in  the  recitation  provides  opportunity  for 
explanation  and  correction.  With  the  best  of  teachers  and 
the  most  faithful  of  students,  some  things  will  be  found 
obscure,  some  misunderstood.  Attempts  to  proceed  before 
these  situations  are  met  and  the  difficulties  cleared  up  would 
be  worse  than  useless,  and  it  is  peculiarly  the  recitation  whose 
function  it  is  to  insure  progress  by  insuring  an  adequate  basis 
for  progress. 

Thus  we  have  seen  that  the  testing  factor  in  the  recitation 
has  a  fivefold  purpose:  insuring  the  faithfulness  and  the  ade- 
quacy of  the  pupil's  preparation,  determining  the  adequacy 
of  the  instruction  and  the  appropriateness  of  the  content,  and 
finally  providing  opportunity  for  explanation  and  correction. 
Good  testing  is  that  which  best  accomplishes  these  five  pur- 
poses, either  singly  or,  as  is  usually  the  case,  several  of  them 
simultaneously. 

Lesson  Preparation. — Has  the  student  prepared  his  lesson 
faithfully?  If  not,  it  may  be  a  matter  not  of  discipline  alone, 
but  of  environment  or  method  as  well.  In  taking  him  to 
task  the  teacher  must  discover  how  much  of  the  delinquency 


THE   RECITATION   MODE  77 

is  really  the  result  of  negligence  and  how  much  is  due  to  con- 
ditions for  which  the  student  is  only  in  part  responsible. 
From  the  standpoint  of  the  student's  responsibility,  a  lesson 
may  be  considered  faithfully  prepared  when  he  has  either 
accomplished  the  task  assigned  or  has  conscientiously  at- 
tempted to  do  so  to  the  best  of  his  ability,  due  account  being 
taken  of  other  obligations  within  or  without  the  school,  of 
other  legitimate  interests,  intellectual  or  physical.  The 
teacher  who  finds  his  class  as  a  whole  or  an  individual  student 
habitually  failing  to  give  the  lesson  sufficient  study  may  usu- 
ally look  for  the  cause  in  excessive  or  indefinite  assignment, 
lack  of  interest,  or  conflicting  duties  or  interests,  and  should 
endeavor  to  meet  each  cause  with  its  appropriate  remedy. 
This  is  the  point  where  the  domains  of  instruction  and  disci- 
pline meet,  and  the  latter  is  often  called  into  the  immediate 
service  of  the  former. 

What  shall  the  teacher  do  when  he  finds  his  class  inade- 
quately prepared?  Every  lesson  plan  presupposes  a  certain 
fairly  definite  degree  of  preparation  and  knowledge  as  its 
starting-point,  and  one  of  the  most  disconcerting  situations 
for  the  inexperienced  teacher  is  that  in  which  he  finds  that 
the  preparation  of  his  students,  their  "  apperceptive  mass," 
is  lacking  and  his  first  step  checked.  It  is  here  that  resource- 
fulness and  adaptability,  as  well  as  the  ability  to  foresee  and 
prepare  for  possible  contingencies,  prove  valuable  assets. 
Before  the  teacher  in  the  class  exercise  can  proceed  with  the 
development  and  study  of  new  material  he  must  test  his 
class  by  way  of  determining  the  adequacy  of  the  foundation 
for  his  structure.  For  the  purpose  of  the  development  of  new 
material  out  of  it,  a  lesson  is  adequately  prepared  when  its 
fundamental  principles  involved  are  clear  in  the  minds  of  the 
class,  including  a  general  notion  of  the  implications  of  those 
principles.  It  may  not  mean  that  all  of  the  details  of  the 
application  have  actually  been  carried  out,  for  not  infre- 
quently it  may  take  the  new  lesson  to  accomplish  this.  The 
second  scene  of  the  play  may  be  taken  up  even  though  the 


78  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

class  has  not  yet  completed  the  interpretation  of  certain  de- 
tails in  the  first  scene  as  assigned  for  the  day,  provided  the 
plan  and  movement  of  the  first  scene  are  sufficiently  well 
understood  to  render  the  study  of  the  second  scene  possible. 
The  class  is  often  able  to  attack  the  demonstration  of  a  new 
problem  in  geometry,  even  though  the  applications  and  even 
certain  points  in  the  demonstration  of  the  preceding  problem 
need  further  study  before  being  left.  Of  course,  the  teacher 
should  not  attempt  it  until  assured  that  the  basis  for  the  new 
material  is  either  already  possessed  or  can  readily  be  supplied 
as  needed.  Nor  does  it  mean  the  abandonment  of  the  unfin- 
ished work,  but  its  completion  alongside  of  the  new,  usually 
after  more  individual  study  out  of  class.  The  teacher  must 
not  in  his  haste  to  get  on  leave  undone  the  work  that  is  to  be 
done.  "I  think  you  understand  that  well  enough,  and  we 
must  hurry  on,"  is  too  often  an  excuse  for  slighting  the  work 
in  order  to  cover  a  specified  amount  of  ground  during  the 
school  term. 

But  lesson  preparation  sufficient  to  render  possible  the 
development  of  new  material  does  not  necessarily  mean  that 
the  lesson  has  been  satisfactorily  learned  from  all  other  points 
as  well.  Aside  from  its  purely  propaedeutic  function,  when 
is  a  lesson  learned?  How  shall  we  establish  a  standard 
whereby  to  judge  whether  an  assigned  task  has  been  prop- 
erly performed?  Investigation1  has  shown  a  striking  dis- 
crepancy in  the  grading  of  examination  papers  in  high  school 
subjects  at  the  hands  of  different  teachers  of  those  subjects, 
thus  indicating  that  standards  of  evaluation  are  far  from 
absolute.  The  personal  factor  in  the  determination  of  ade- 
quacy of  lesson  preparation  can  never  be  wholly  eliminated. 
It  may  seem  tautology  to  say  that  a  lesson  is  adequately 
prepared  when  the  aim  for  which  it  was  assigned  has  been 
realized.  However,  no  more  adequate  standard  can  be  estab- 
lished. The  chief  reason  for  the  varying  evaluations  of  a 
piece  of  work  is  the  diversity  of  its  aims,  or  even  the  indefi- 
1  Starch,  "Educational  Measurements,"  chap.  II. 


THE   RECITATION   MODE  79 

niteness  of  its  aim  in  the  instructor's  mind.  If  the  aim  is 
memorizing,  the  lesson  is  learned  when  the  pupil  has  it  so 
well  committed  that  he  will  retain  it  and  be  able  to  recall  it 
when  desired.  If  the  aim  is  skill  in  the  application  of  princi- 
ples, lesson  preparation  means  that  the  exercises  assigned 
have  made  to  that  skill  the  contribution  for  which  they  were 
intended.  If  the  aim  is  appreciation,  the  preparation  of  the 
lesson  is  adequate  when  the  pupil  has  experienced  the  emo- 
tional response  for  which  the  lesson  was  designed.  No  more 
ultimate  principle  is  possible  than  the  one  just  suggested,  and 
for  lesson  preparation  the  teacher  should  accept  no  less, 
demand  no  more,  than  its  fulfilment. 

Ideally,  every  student  will  adequately  prepare  his  entire 
lesson  every  day.  Practically  even  an  approximation  to  this 
is  by  no  means  easy  to  secure,  even  for  the  experienced 
teacher,  while  to  the  beginner  the  problem  of  enforcing  faith- 
fulness in  study  on  the  part  of  the  less  industrious  pupil  is 
one  of  the  most  serious  which  he  has  to  encounter.  In  the 
long  run,  the  only  solution  to  the  problem  is  a  combination  of 
thought-provoking,  interesting  lesson-assignment  with  con- 
stant, patient  insistence  and  watchfulness.  Teaching  the 
class  how  to  attack  their  lessons,  supervising  their  study,  and 
rendering  needed  assistance  and  encouragement  will  often 
prove  of  unexpected  benefit.  A  carefully  planned  written 
test  during  the  first  five  minutes  of  the  lesson  hour,  demand- 
ing brief  and  ready  answers  involving  familiarity  with  the 
lesson,  is  a  stimulant  often  resorted  to  by  inexperienced 
teachers,  with  a  degree  of  success.  Like  all  stimulants,  how- 
ever, its  effect  is  temporary,  and  it  should  be  seldom  used, 
and  as  soon  as  possible  should  be  displaced  by  the  more 
healthful  incentive  of  duty  and  ultimately  by  that  of  interest. 

Partly  as  a  device  for  enforcing  the  preparation  and  still 
more  in  order  that  the  teacher  may  know  the  needs  of  the 
class,  it  is  a  good  practice  to  require  that  all  students  who  for 
any  reason  have  not  fully  prepared  the  lesson  for  the  day 
report  the  fact  before  the  beginning  of  the  class  exercise, 


8o  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

under  penalty  of  severe  reproof  if  the  course  of  the  hour  dis- 
closes an  unreported  lack  of  preparation.  This  plan  serves  a 
threefold  purpose.  It  provides  an  opportunity  to  excuse 
justifiable  shortcomings,  and  saves  the  student  the  embarrass- 
ment of  failures  and  perhaps  unmerited  reproof  during  the 
class  exercise.  It  enables  the  teacher  to  know  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  hour  just  what  to  expect  from  every  member  of 
the  class.  It  discourages  the  negligent  pupil  from  hoping  to 
escape  detection  of  his  neglect.  The  so-called  "mathematical 
report  cards"1  whereupon  the  student  reports  at  the  begin- 
ning of  each  class  as  to  the  numbers  of  the  problems  solved, 
those  unsuccessfully  attempted,  and  those  not  tried,  is  one 
method  of  employing  this  general  device. 

The  Oral  Quiz. — Much  more  helpful  than  the  written  test 
is  the  oral  quiz  at  the  beginning  of  the  hour.  While  it  shares 
with  the  written  test  the  task  of  enforcing  preparation,  it 
combines  therewith  four  other  equally  vital  functions.  In 
the  first  place,  it  provides  opportunity  for  directing  the  stu- 
dent's attention  to  secondary  points  and  implications  which 
otherwise  would  have  escaped  him,  largely  because  his  lim- 
ited experience  offers  no  point  of  contact  between  these  and 
his  already  known  world.  In  psychological  terms,  the  con- 
nection between  the  new  and  the  old  is  too  remote  for  apper- 
ception to  take  place.  After  his  study  of  "The  Vision  of  Sir 
Launfal,"  he  may  need  a  little  skilful  questioning  to  lead  him 
to  see  the  significance  of  the  "mouldy  crust  of  coarse  brown 
bread,"  and  of  the  "water  out  of  a  wooden  bowl." 

A  second  function  of  the  quiz,  and  one  following  naturally 
out  of  the  first,  is  that  of  correction.  The  immature  student, 
in  the  class  exercise  as  well  as  in  his  home  study  or  laboratory 
observation,  will  not  only  overlook  things  but  will  also  mis- 
interpret his  experiences,  and  only  a  prompt  correction  will 
prevent  further  misconceptions  as  a  consequence.  The  cor- 
rection should  not  take  the  form  of  destructive  fault-finding, 
and  on  the  other  hand  it  should  not  as  a  rule  involve  telling 

1  Mentioned  by  Young  in  "The  Teaching  of  Mathematics,"  p.  133. 


THE  RECITATION  MODE  8 1 

the  student  the  correct  observation  or  result.  A  truly  con- 
structive criticism  is  one  wherein  the  student  is  led  to  dis- 
cover for  himself  the  inaccuracy  of  his  answer  and  the  correct 
method  of  procedure;  then,  unless  the  answer  is  unimportant 
and  time  lacking,  to  work  out  and  substitute  the  correct  con- 
clusion in  place  of  the  erroneous  one.  When  the  student 
encounters  excessive  difficulty  in  correcting  his  mistake, 
appeal  may  well  be  made  to  the  class  for  assistance,  thereby 
not  merely  developing  the  spirit  of  helpfulness,  but  at  the 
same  time  utilizing  the  problem  as  a  class  problem.  Both  in 
his  own  correction  and  in  that  by  the  class  the  teacher  must 
maintain  a  rational  distribution  of  emphasis,  leading  the 
pupils  to  distinguish  between  fundamental  and  trifling  errors. 
Thus  a  pupil's  mistake  may  often  by  skilful,  considerate 
treatment  be  utilized  for  both  intellectual  and  moral  training 
of  the  class. 

'„  A  third  function  of  the  quiz  is  that  of  leading  the  student 
to  generalize  upon  the  basis  of  the  data  acquired  in  his  study. 
His  laboratory  observations  may  have  given  him  the  facts 
regarding  each  of  a  number  of  processes,  his  study  of  ballads 
may  have  familiarized  him  with  the  essential  features  of  each, 
but  the  subsequent  discussion  of  the  principle  in  them  all 
brings  simultaneously  to  consciousness  the  common  features 
of  all  the  processes  or  ballads. 

Fourthly,  the  oral  quiz  offers  an  opportunity  to  suggest 
applications  of  the  generalization  thus  derived  to  the  explana- 
tion of  problems  encountered  outside  the  immediate  field  in 
which  the  generalization  is  made.  A  principle  in  physics 
may  be  made  to  explain  a  hitherto  puzzling  phenomenon  in 
the  action  of  a  machine.  Thus  the  oral  quiz  may  combine 
with  its  fundamental  factor  of  testing  the  further  factors  of 
reflection  and  application,  and  incidentally  expression. 

:>  A  further  benefit  results  from  the  stimulating  and  broad- 
ening effect  of  classroom  discussion.  The  various  points  of 
view  and  interpretations  of  different  students  induce  a  sort 
of  funding  of  contributions,  in  which  each  individual  contrib- 


82  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

utes  what  he  has  and  shares  in  the  joint  interpretation  of  the 
class. 

The  Examination. — A  study  of  the  testing  factor  in  the 
recitation  mode  would  not  be  complete  without  brief  men- 
tion of  its  near  relative,  the  examination.  Indeed,  it  involves 
no  stretch  of  the  imagination  to  call  the  examination  a  recit- 
ing as  a  means  of  testing,  and  its  problem  is  one  of  instruc- 
tion rather  than  merely  an  administrative  one.  As  the  term 
is  commonly  understood,  the  examination  differs  from  the 
recitation  in  two  essential  features.  In  the  first  place,  it 
covers  a  much  larger  amount  of  material,  and  hence  has  much 
greater  weight  in  the  evaluation  of  the  pupil's  work.  The 
examiner  must  therefore  exercise  care  that  the  questions  set 
shall  be  truly  representative  ones.  Merely  glancing  over  the 
work  covered  and  selecting  at  random  topics  or  problems 
which  are  easy  to  formulate  as  questions  and  definite  to  grade 
upon  as  answers  obviously  disregards  this  requirement.  The 
truly  representative  examination  is  the  one  in  which  the 
questions  are  so  distributed  as  most  adequately  to  test  the 
pupil's  mastery  of  the  subject  in  as  many  of  its  phases  as 
the  length  of  the  examination  will  permit.  Before  formulat- 
ing a  question  paper  the  examiner  should  have  a  definite  idea 
of  what  the  course  is  intended  to  effect,  to  what  knowledge, 
power,  or  emotional  development  the  student  is  supposed  to 
have  attained.  With  this  in  mind,  a  well-balanced,  properly 
emphasized  examination  can  be  produced,  in  which  funda- 
mentals rather  than  incidentals  are  stressed,  each  in  propor- 
tion to  its  importance,  and  the  element  of  chance  will  be 
reduced  to  a  minimum  or  perhaps  wholly  eliminated.  A  well- 
taught  course  and  a  representative  examination  will  do  much 
to  reduce  the  anxiety  of  the  student  lest  he  get  caught  upon 
some  unexpected  or  overlooked  point. 

The  second  distinguishing  feature  of  the  examination,  in 
contrast  to  the  recitation,  is  the  fact  that  being  usually  in 
writing  and  coming  at  the  close  of  a  section  of  work,  it  offers 
practically  no  opportunity  for  discussion  and  correction. 


THE  RECITATION  MODE  83 

For  the  student,  the  requirement  of  meeting  the  situation 
absolutely  independently  is  by  no  means  harmful  but  quite 
the  reverse.  However,  the  examination  should  when  possi- 
ble be  followed  by  at  least  one  class  exercise  or  series  of  per- 
sonal conferences  for  the  clarifying  of  obscure  points  and  the 
correcting  of  misconceptions.  It  thus  ceases  to  be  merely 
administrative  in  character  and  becomes  a  real  instrumen- 
tality in  instruction. 

3.     THE  RECITATION  AS  DRILL 

Function  of  Drill. — Whereas  the  testing  mode  is  applica- 
ble to  practically  every  type  of  educational  content,  drill  is 
in  its  application  limited  to  processes  and  memory  material. 
We  test  the  algebra  student  on  his  ability  to  reason  out  the 
statement  of  his  problem,  to  formulate  it  as  an  equation,  to 
solve  the  equation,  and  to  state  the  rule  for  its  solution.  We 
drill  him  upon  only  the  two  last-named,  representing  respec- 
tively process  and  memory.  Moreover,  the  less  the  process 
has  been  reduced  to  mechanism  and  the  less  mechanical  is 
the  type  of  memory  involved,  the  less  applicable  is  drill. 
Drill  is,  in  fact,  the  rendering  stereotyped  and  automatic  of 
a  process  or  memory  which  is  so  elemental  in  character  that  it 
can  thereby  be  fitted  to  render  permanent  and  ready  service. 
The  function  of  drill,  therefore,  is  to  secure  readiness  of  proc- 
ess and  retention  of  memory  material,  or,  differently  stated, 
it  aims  to  render  certain  lines  of  action  and  thought  habitual. 
It  is  thus  a  measure  aimed  at  economy,  since  it  largely  frees 
the  attention  from  the  immediate  details,  for  the  considera- 
tion of  other  newer  or  less  typical  situations.1 

Applicability  of  Drill. — Drill  is,  as  we  have  said,  limited  in 
its  range  of  application.  In  so  far  as  emotion  or  reflection  is 
essential  in  any  content,  to  that  degree  is  drill  obviously  un- 
suited,  since  it  aims  at  automatism  rather  than  thought,  at 

1  As  the  reader  will  see,  drill  is  here  taken  to  mean  something  more 
than  a  mere  unthinking,  mechanical  repetition  of  material. 


»4  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

products  rather  than  processes.  On  the  other  hand,  in  such 
studies  as  the  foreign  languages,  where  the  forms  and  rela- 
tions are,  for  the  student  at  least,  largely  arbitrary,  memory 
plays  a  leading  r61e.  Mathematics  involves  many  processes 
which  are  frequently  utilized,  and,  although  the  student  must 
thoroughly  understand  the  basis  for  each  step,  he  must  be 
able  to  employ  the  process  readily  without  pausing  to  rethink 
the  logic  of  them.  In  the  same  way,  such  studies  as  manual 
training,  the  commercial  branches,  and  physical  training 
abound  in  processes  and  facts  which  demand  drill  for  their 
establishment  as  memories.  Drill  is  thus  peculiarly  applica- 
ble in  the  establishment  of  a  rote  memory,  wherein  there  is  a 
high  degree  of  uniformity  in  the  form  of  the  material,  and  has 
but  little  place  in  the  realm  of  logical  memory,  in  which  the 
form  is  subordinate  and  variable.  It  follows  as  a  corollary 
of  all  this  that,  when  the  time  and  energy  required  by  ade- 
quate drill  upon  a  process  or  fact  equal  those  involved  in 
rethinking  the  process  or  rediscovering  the  fact  when  needed 
later,  drill  is  a  waste  rather  than  an  economy,  and  the  wise 
instructor  will  be  on  his  guard  lest,  in  his  zeal  for  thorough- 
ness, he  misdirect  his  efforts.  As  material  illustrative  of  this 
might  be  cited  some  of  the  formulas  in  trigonometry  and 
physics,  the  details  of  setting  up  the  apparatus  for  the  genera- 
tion of  certain  less  common  gases  in  chemistry,  and  the 
method  of  solving  algebraic  equations  by  the  substitution  of 
(u  +  v)  for  x  and  (u  —  v)  for  y.  The  day  is  not  long  past 
when  the  study  of  history  in  the  schools  was  mainly  a  mem- 
orizing of  facts  and  dates,  due  largely  to  a  mistaken  concep- 
tion of  the  function  of  historical  study.  To-day  we  realize 
that  facts  and  dates  to  be  memorized  merely  serve  as  the 
framework  for  the  study  of  history,  and,  just  because  they  are 
such  framework,  they  form  a  comparatively  small  part  of  the 
whole,  yet  must  be  drilled  upon  until  firmly  fixed.  In  the 
study  of  mathematics  the  inexperienced  teacher,  rebelling 
against  the  mechanical  memorizing  of  formal  rules  and 
"cases"  of  earlier  days,  is  in  danger  of  erring  in  the  other 


THE   RECITATION   MODE  85 

direction  by  not  drilling  enough  upon  essential  processes. 
He  often  devotes  his  energies  to  a  limited  degree  of  drill  upon 
a  large  number  of  data,  whereas  he  might  better  drill  more 
exhaustively  upon  a  smaller  number  of  fundamental  points. 
The  chief  virtue  in  drill  lies  not  in  its  range  but  in  its  thor- 
oughness. 

For  convenience  of  treatment,  we  shall  consider  drill  as 
of  two  forms  or  types,  according  to  the  form  of  its  content, 
viz.,  drill  upon  processes  and  drill  upon  facts. 

Drill  upon  Processes. — We  have  seen  that  one  of  the 
aims  of  drill  is  to  render  a  process  automatic,  ready  and  cer- 
tain in  operation,  and  involving  a  transfer  of  attention  from 
the  process  to  the  result  sought.  In  other  words,  it  is  one 
type  of  habit-forming,  and  as  such  involves  the  principle  of 
simple  association.1  What  is  really  done  in  habit-forming  is 
the  establishing  of  a  strong  association  between  a  certain  type 
of  situation  and  the  desired  type  of  response,  so  that  the 
former  inevitably  leads  to  the  latter.  It  follows  that  the 
rules  for  controlling  association,  as  stated  in  Chapter  II,  are 
virtually  those  for  the  formation  of  habits. 

For  the  instruction  in  the  classroom  the  process  may  be 
viewed  as  consisting  of  two  steps  which  might  be  termed  the 
initiation  and  the  fixation,  and  which  correspond  in  general 
to  Thorndike's  ''Law  of  Effect"  and  "Law  of  Exercise."2 
The  former  of  these  laws,  which  he  calls  "the  fundamental 
law  of  learning  and  teaching,"  Thorndike  states  briefly  as 
follows:  "Satisfying  results  strengthen,  and  discomfort  weak- 
ens, the  bond  between  situation  and  response."  In  terms  of 
classroom  procedure,  this  would  mean  that  a  prime  essential 
in  drill  is  a  strong  motive.  The  first  performance  of  the 
activity  must  be  under  the  stress  of  a  real  motive.  The  stu- 
dent must  feel  the  appeal  of  the  situation  as  a  real  one  for 
him:  one  the  meaning  of  which  furnishes  him  genuine  grati- 
fication, and  into  the  solution  of  which  he  injects  his  whole 
self.  This  insures  what  James  calls  "a  strong  and  decided 

!P.  17.  *  Thorndike,  "Education,"  pp.  95-97. 


86  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

initiative,"  so  that  the  subsequent  fixation  of  the  activity  as 
habit  does  not  involve  passing  through  an  intermediate  stage 
of  drudgery,  but  the  original  interest  persists  until  the  habit 
is  established.  When  the  history  student  realizes  that  a 
knowledge  of  the  sequence  and  dates  of  the  United  States 
presidential  administrations  will  serve  him  as  the  framework 
for  the  location  and  relationship  of  the  events  in  American 
history,  the  interest  in  the  list  will  persist  into  and  through 
its  fixation  in  memory.  Ideal  habit  formation  involves  a 
transfer  of  attention  from  process  to  product,  but  without 
this  strong  initial  motive  the  attention  is  not  thus  trans- 
ferred, but  is  dissipated  during  this  intermediate  stage  of 
drudgery,  and  the  product  is  the  inflexible,  inelastic  habit  of 
unintelligent  mechanism.  The  boy  who  can  solve  the  fac- 
toring problem  only  when  he  is  told  the  case  under  which  it 
falls  is  a  typical  product  of  unintelligent,  uninterested  drill. 
For  him  the  situation  to  be  met  is  not  a  mathematical  one 
but  one  of  avoiding  unpleasant  consequences. 

The  second  stage  in  habit-forming,  the  fixation  stage,  is 
interpreted  by  Thorndike  by  the  ''law  of  exercise."  "Other 
things  being  equal,  exercise  strengthens  the  bond  between 
situation  and  response."  Every  performance  of  an  activity 
tends  to  render  that  activity  more  ready  and  exact.  Nega- 
tively stated,  every  exception  permitted  during  the  formation 
of  a  habit  tends  to  weaken  that  habit.  Drill,  therefore,  in- 
volves frequent  repetition  of  the  process  for  the  purpose  of 
fixing  it.  Account  must  be  taken,  not  merely  of  the  activity 
as  such,  but  of  it  as  a  response  to  a  certain  type  of  situation. 
Accordingly,  it  must  aim  at  a  fixation  both  of  the  process 
itself  and  of  the  connection  between  the  process  and  the  prob- 
lem to  which  it  is  the  response.  The  drill  upon  the  removal 
of  parenthetical  symbols  in  algebraic  expressions  must  be 
permeated  with  the  realization  that  it  is  not  a  juggling  with 
symbols  and  letters,  but  the  simplification  of  the  expression 
for  greater  ease  of  its  manipulation.  The  stages  of  initiation 
and  fixation  are  thus  seen,  not  to  be  discrete  and  independent, 


THE   RECITATION   MODE  87 

but  to  form  a  definite  unitary  whole,  the  establishment  of  a 
ready,  accurate,  and  lasting  response  to  a  typical  situation. 
Drill  upon  processes  is  educative  in  so  far  as  it  effects  the 
establishment  of  such  a  response. 

Drill  upon  Facts. — The  second  type  of  drill,  that  upon 
facts,  has  a  somewhat  different  psychical  character.  As  the 
drill  upon  processes  was  essentially  habit-forming,  the  drill 
upon  facts  might  be  termed  memory-forming.1  Here,  too,  we 
have  a  form  of  simple  association,  in  that  a  memory  is  but  an 
association  set  up  between  two  ideas  so  that  one  leads  im- 
mediately to  the  other.  And  here,  as  before,  the  rules  for 
simple  association  are  fundamental.  A  memory  involves  four 
distinct  and  essential  processes:  learning,  retention,  recall,  and 
recognition.2  All  four  are  involved  in  drill  though  not  all 
can  be  directly  influenced  by  training.  "There  can  be  no 
improvement  of  the  general  or  elementary  faculty  of  mem- 
ory; there  can  only  be  improvement  of  our  memory  for  special 
systems  of  associated  things;  and  this  latter  improvement  is 
due  to  the  way  in  which  the  things  in  question  are  woven  into 
association  with  each  other  in  the  mind."  3  The  implication 
of  this  oft-quoted  statement  of  Professor  James  seems  to  be 
that  the  work  of  training  a  memory  must  be  devoted  less  to 
the  process  of  retention  than  to  that  of  learning,  an  implica- 
tion quite  in  accord  with  the  teachings  of  present-day  psy- 
chology. 

The  maxim,  "Well  begun  is  half  done,"  has  a  peculiar 
validity  in  the  case  of  memory,  for  that  which  is  well  learned 
stands  an  excellent  chance  of  being  remembered.  On  the 
other  hand,  retention  is  essentially  passive,  and  as  such  can 

1  The  word  "memory"  as  here  used  refers  not  to  a  supposed  general 
capacity  for  remembering,  but  to  a  particular  type  of  mental  functioning. 
For  example,  we  have  a  memory  of  yesterday's  rainstorm,  a  memory  of 
the  spelling  of  a  certain  word,  etc.     This  employment  of  the  term  is  in 
accord  with  its  usage  in  modern  psychological  literature.     Cf.  Titchener, 
"Textbook  in  Psychology,"  §  117;  Pillsbury,  "Essentials  of  Psychology," 
chap.  VIII,  etc. 

2  Pillsbury,  "Essentials  of  Psychology,"  p.  189. 
*  James,  "Talks  to  Teachers,"  pp.  123-124. 


88  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

be  affected  little  if  at  all  by  specific  training.  For  much  the 
same  reason,  perhaps,  retention  is  practically  dependent  as  to 
both  degree  and  character  upon  the  learning.  What  was  the 
best  learned  will  be  the  best  retained.  What  was  learned  in 
visual  terms  will  remain  predominantly  visual,  rather  than 
auditory  or  motor,  in  its  retention.  The  arrangement  of  ele- 
ments in  the  learning  will  be  their  arrangement  in  retention. 
Recall  is  the  active  counterpart  of  retention.  It  is  the  "run- 
ning down"  of  an  idea  which  one  believes  to  be  at  the  remote 
end  of  a  chain  of  ideas,  the  near  end  of  which  is  suggested 
either  directly  or  indirectly  by  the  situation  at  hand.  It  is 
unnecessary  to  say  that  what  has  not  been  learned  and  re- 
tained cannot  be  recalled,  yet  teachers  often  overlook  the 
corollary  that  what  has  been  the  best  learned  is  the  most 
readily  and  accurately  recalled.  The  factor  of  recognition  is 
seldom  mentioned  in  pedagogical  discussions  of  memory,  yet 
its  significance  is  real.  To-day,  as  I  sought  to  recall  in  a  for- 
eign language  the  equivalent  for  "thread,"  the  word  came  to 
my  consciousness.  Though  subsequent  investigation  showed 
the  correctness  of  the  recall,  the  element  of  recognition  was 
lacking,  and  my  memory  of  the  word  was  really  of  little  value 
because  unreliable.  The  efficient  student  not  merely  will 
know,  but  will  know  that  he  knows. 

Drill  upon  facts  is,  as  we  have  seen,  the  formation  of  mem- 
ories. The  requirements  for  its  successful  conduct  are  there- 
fore derived  from  the  conditions  of  efficient  memory  and  ul- 
timately from  the  nature  of  memory  itself.  What  must  be 
the  form  and  character  of  the  content  with  which  the  drill  is 
employed,  and  what  the  form  and  character  of  the  drill  itself? 

Memory  content  must,  in  the  first  place,  be  deeply  im- 
pressed. To  this,  a  vividness  of  imagery  is  conducive,  and  the 
instructor  will  do  well  to  utilize  a  variety  of  avenues  of  ap- 
proach in  "bringing  home"  a  fact  to  be  remembered.  The 
student  who  has  heard  a  chemical  formula  spoken,  has  seen  it 
written,  and  has  written  it  himself  has  received  a  far  deeper 
impression  than  would  have  come  from  reading  it  from  the 
book  a  dozen  times.  When  the  content  is  in  the  form  of  an 


THE  RECITATION  MODE  89 

abstraction,  it  should  be  clearly  formulated  and  its  concrete 
application  should  be  obvious.  Clear  ideas,  like  clear  images, 
produce  deep  impressions,  and  abstractions  without  their  con- 
crete implications  closely  associated  soon  lose  their  implica- 
tions and  make  but  faint  impressions  upon  consciousness  be- 
cause of  their  indefiniteness.  A  well-stated  rule  in  algebra, 
Latin,  or  domestic  science,  supplemented  with  adequate 
training  in  its  application,  is  infinitely  better  memory  content 
than  a  rule  which  is  obscure  or  poorly  stated,  or  without  its 
concrete  implication  in  terms  of  actual  problems  in  those  sub- 
jects. 

A  second  requirement  of  memory  content  is  that  its  ele- 
ments shall  be  widely  and  strongly  associated.  While  depth 
of  impression  is  fundamental  in  all  memory,  and  is  probably 
its  dominant  basis  in  childhood,  the  most  effectual  factor  in 
the  memory  of  adolescents  and  adults  is  the  association  of 
ideas.  Since  recall  involves  the  tracing  of  an  association  back 
from  an  idea  at  hand  to  the  one  sought,  it  follows  that  in  the 
effort  to  recall  a  desired  idea  the  ability  to  hit  upon  an  idea 
which  has  an  association  with  the  desired  idea  is  essential. 
The  teacher  must  therefore  develop  in  the  student's  mind  as- 
sociations between  the  thing  being  studied  and  a  number  of 
other  easily  recalled  ideas,  so  that  the  pupil  may  later  be  able 
to  hit  upon  something  which  suggests  the  desired  idea.  The 
more  roads  lead  to  Rome,  the  more  easily  and  surely  one  can 
find  his  way  thither.  However,  we  must  make  sure  that  the 
student  recognizes  the  idea  with  which  the  thing  sought  is 
associated.  A  road  to  Rome  is  of  little  value  to  the  traveller 
who  does  not  know  that  it  leads  thither.  Naturally  the  best 
method  for  this  is  to  lead  the  student  to  such  an  interpreta- 
tion of  the  idea  that  its  relations  with  other  ideas  already 
familiar  are  recognized.  In  other  words,  its  place  in  the  sys- 
tem of  the  student's  experience  is  the  basis  for  the  widest  and 
best  association.  Such  an  association  is  the  ideal,  in  breadth 
and  in  strength  as  well,  and  gives  us  the  most  serviceable  type 
of  memory. 

The  type  of  memory  is  determined  by  the  type  of  its  fun- 


90  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

damental  association.  When  the  association  is  based  upon 
purely  arbitrary  relationships,  rote  or  mechanical  memory  is 
the  result,  whereas  with  an  association  whose  basis  lies  in  a 
connection  in  the  character  of  the  content,  we  have  a  logical 
memory.  The  fact  that  the  date  of  Charlemagne's  coronation 
at  Rome  was  the  year  800,  that  the  length  of  the  seconds  pen- 
dulum is  about  one  meter,  or  that  the  Latin  word  for  advise 
is  moneo,  is  in  no  way  connected  with  the  nature  of  Charle- 
magne's coronation,  or  of  the  pendulum,  or  of  the  idea  of 
advice.  On  the  other  hand,  the  facts  that  Charlemagne's 
coronation  was  as  head  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  that  there 
is  a  fixed  relationship  between  pendulum  length  and  vibra- 
tion time,  and  that  moneo  is  the  basis  of  the  English  word 
"admonition,"  are  not  arbitrary  but  involve  a  logical  connec- 
tion. The  former  are  matters  of  rote  memory,  the  latter  of 
logical  memory.  The  difference  between  the  two  is  funda- 
mental and  the  appropriateness  of  drill  in  the  two  cases  must 
differ  accordingly. 

Conditions  of  Drill. — We  have  seen  that  the  content  of  the 
drill  must  be  deeply  impressed  and  widely  and  strongly  associ- 
ated. The  character  and  form  of  the  drill  itself  remain  to  be 
considered.  The  most  obvious  feature  is  repetition.  Just  as 
an  act  performed  many  times  is  the  most  easy  to  perform,  so 
an  idea  longest  retained  and  the  most  often  brought  to  focus 
of  consciousness  is  the  most  lasting  in  memory  and  the  most 
ready  of  recall.  Repetition  is  thus  fundamental  in  drill,  es- 
pecially when  the  type  of  memory  sought  is  rote  rather  than 
logical.  Although  a  limited  degree  of  repetition  in  the  case 
of  a  logical  memory  assists  in  deepening  the  impression,  ex- 
tended repetition  tends  to  reduce  the  thought  relationship  to 
a  mere  form  of  words,  thus  destroying  its  chief  educational 
value.  A  demonstration  in  geometry,  when  memorized, 
ceases  to  be  a  demonstration,  and  has  no  more  value  than  a 
list  of  nonsense  syllables.  In  the  case  of  rote  memory,  how- 
ever, since  the  relationship  is  arbitrary  and  the  thought  in- 
volved is  immediately  obvious  from  the  words  memorized,  the 
form  of  the  content  rather  than  its  logical  basis  is  the  essential 


THE   RECITATION  MODE  QI 

feature  and  repetition  is  the  leading  element  in  the  drill.  The 
use  of  cases  after  certain  prepositions,  the  formulas  of  many 
chemical  compounds,  and  the  lineal  descent  of  the  French 
kings  are  matters  of  rote  memory,  and  can  be  memorized  only 
by  prolonged  and  frequent  repetition.  The  same  applies  also 
to  such  processes  as  the  use  of  instruments  in  drawing  and 
sight-reading  in  music. 

It  is  not  enough  that  the  matter  be  repeated  many  times, 
but  the  repetition  must  be  rationally  and  economically  con- 
ducted. Prolonged  repetition  naturally  produces  fatigue  and 
consequently  distraction  of  attention,  which  in  turn  prevents 
a  deep  impression.  Economy  in  drill  demands  that  the  drill 
shall  not  be  prolonged  past  the  point  where  fatigue  interferes 
with  the  focussing  of  attention  upon  the  content.  It  is  far 
better  to  drill  often  than  to  drill  too  long  at  one  time.  It  has 
also  been  found  that  in  some  types  of  memorizing,  and  within 
certain  limits,  it  is  better  not  to  divide  the  whole  into  small 
sections  but  to  keep  the  larger  units  intact.  For  example,  in 
learning  a  poem  the  student  is  advised  to  read  the  whole  se- 
lection or  large  unit  of  content  through  from  beginning  to  end 
a  number  of  times,  thus  establishing  the  greatest  possible 
number  of  associations  between  the  parts  in  their  proper  order. 
This  is  better  than  first  breaking  up  the  selection  into  small 
parts  and  learning  each  part  separately,  thus  setting  up  wrong 
associations  between  the  end  and  the  beginning  of  each  part 
through  the  constant  return  from  end  to  beginning  in  the  repe- 
tition involved  in  the  memorizing.1  Since  drill  is  for  the 
purpose  of  insuring  memory,  these  rules  for  memorizing  apply 
with  equal  validity  to  the  work  of  drill. 

But  mere  repetition,  however  extended,  will  not  suffice. 
Drill  must  be  intelligent.  The  student  who  repeats  mechan- 

1  Cf.  Parker,  "Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools,"  pp.  154-158. 
In  practice  the  teacher  will  doubtless  experience  difficulty  in  introducing 
this  method  of  learning.  Since  students  do  not  see  results  as  quickly  as 
with  the  small-unit  memorizing  to  which  they  are  accustomed,  they  are 
likely  to  become  discouraged  and  to  attempt  the  learning  with  such  lack 
of  confidence  as  to  hinder  its  accomplishment.  In  such  cases,  success  is 
possible  only  through  encouragement  and  patient  insistence. 


92  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

ically  not  only  forgets  quickly  but  fails  to  acquire  readiness 
in  the  application  of  the  thing  learned.  A  formula  of  words 
whose  meaning  is  not  known  is  utterly  useless.  As  we  have 
already  seen  in  the  case  of  habit,  so  in  the  sphere  of  memory 
the  aim  is  not  to  render  the  entire  activity  unconscious  and 
mechanical,  but  the  attention  to  the  situation  which  stimu- 
lated the  thought  and  to  the  purpose  of  the  activity  must 
never  be  permitted  to  flag.  It  is  not  enough  that  the  student 
repeat  mechanically  the  formula  for  the  velocity  of  falling 
bodies  or  the  conjugation  of  the  verb  "trouver."  He  must 
throughout  the  drill  realize  that  he  is  giving  the  answer  to 
the  question,  "How  rapidly  does  a  body  fall?"  or  "How  do 
the  French  say,  '  I  found,  you  found,  they  found '  ?  "  Prob- 
ably one  of  the  chief  causes  for  the  inability  of  students  to 
apply  what  they  are  supposed  to  have  learned  in  school  is  to 
be  found  in  unintelligent,  mechanical  drill. 

It  is  but  another  formulation  of  the  same  idea  to  say  that 
drill  must  be  applied.  The  concrete  application  of  the  ma- 
terial must  be  ever  in  the  student's  mind  as  he  repeats  the 
words  in  which  the  principle  has  been  expressed.  Not  merely 
must  rules  and  formulas  be  drilled  upon  in  the  abstract 
statement,  but  the  student  must  be  given  corresponding 
practice  in  solving  the  problems  to  which  they  refer.  The 
learning  of  lists  of  prepositions  governing  the  dative  will  be 
of  little  practical  service  unless  accompanied  by  drill  upon  the 
concrete  cases:  "aus  der  Stadt,"  "nach  Hause,"  etc.  The 
most  effectual  drill  is  that  which  most  nearly  approximates  in 
form  the  actual  situations  for  whose  solution  it  is  intended. 
Studying  a  vocabulary  by  always  repeating  first  the  foreign, 
then  the  English,  word,  will  be  of  small  service  in  learning  to 
write  Latin  or  speak  French,  as  many  a  student  has  dis- 
covered to  his  sorrow.  Not  merely  must  the  relation  between 
the  English  expression  and  its  foreign  equivalent  be  remem- 
bered, but  each  must  at  once  suggest  the  other  in  actual  prac- 
tice. 

A  further  requirement  of  drill  is  that  it  shall  be  sufficient. 


THE   RECITATION   MODE  93 

Although  on  his  guard  against  prolonging  the  exercise  to  the 
point  of  fatigue,  the  teacher  must  also  realize  that  the  foun- 
dation-stone of  habit-forming  and  memory-forming  is  thor- 
oughness, for  what  is  partially  learned  is  soon  forgotten. 
Mere  knowledge  that  a  fact  is  true,  however  clearly  it  may  be 
understood,  will  not  become  a  permanent  possession  until  it 
has  been  deeply  impressed  by  repetition  while  still  fresh  in 
consciousness.  Thereafter,  it  is  not  necessary  that  subse- 
quent drills  be  prolonged;  indeed,  often  a  single  repetition  will 
suffice  to  restore  the  freshness  of  an  earlier  memory.  But 
what  has  once  been  won  at  the  cost  of  much  time  and  labor  is 
presumably  too  precious  to  be  permitted  to  slip  away  for 
want  of  precaution,  and  the  teacher  who  believes  in  the  con- 
servation of  acquired  resources  will  so  plan  his  work  that  the 
old  will  reappear,  possibly  in  a  new  dress,  but  often  enough  to 
escape  being  forgotten.  A  restimulation  of  the  memory  by 
giving  it  a  new  and  fresh  motivation,  especially  in  the  light  of 
newly  encountered  problems,  will  often  assist  greatly  in  re- 
viving and  deepening  the  original  impression.  The  thorough- 
ness of  which  our  grandfathers  boasted  is  a  virtue  which  the 
modern  teacher  may  well  emulate.  In  these  days  of  pre- 
scribed and  overcrowded  courses,  the  beginning  teacher  is 
ever  tempted  to  press  on  to  new  themes,  misled  by  a  half- 
conscious  feeling  that  what  the  student  once  knows  he  will 
retain.  One  of  the  hardest  lessons  for  the  pedagogical  novice 
to  learn  is  the  importance  and  meaning  of  thoroughness.  His 
task  would  often  be  greatly  lightened  could  he  but  realize 
that  thoroughness  is  rather  intensive  than  extensive.  It  is 
not  that  everything  be  learned  but  that  the  fundamentals  be 
mastered. 

Cramming. — The  question  as  to  the  value  of  cramming 
has  often  been  raised  and  variously  answered.  Much  depends 
upon  the  meaning  given  to  the  term.  If  by  it  is  meant  a 
final  general  review  of  what  has  previously  been  intelligently 
learned,  with  the  purpose  of  refreshing  old  associations,  its 
value  is  real  and  great.  However,  cramming  is  usually  taken 


94  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

to  mean  a  hurried  attempt  to  learn  in  a  few  hours  what 
should  have  occupied  weeks  in  the  mastering.  As  thus  inter- 
preted, cramming  is  a  violation  of  almost  every  principle  we 
have  just  enunciated.  Due  largely  to  the  haste  of  its  method, 
impressions  are  not  deeply  made,  since  not  sufficiently  re- 
peated. No  opportunity  is  given  for  the  formation  of  wide  or 
strong  associations.  The  material  is  learned  only  in  the  form 
of  the  abstract  or  general,  since  the  concrete  implications  and 
applications  are  slighted.  The  real  mastery  of  any  educa- 
tional content  is  a  matter  of  time.  Each  step  in  thought,  like 
each  tier  of  stone  in  the  building,  must  have  had  time  to 
"find  itself"  before  the  next  addition  is  made.  With  thor- 
ough teaching,  hasty  cramming  will  be  not  only  unnecessary 
but  impossible,  since  the  review  of  what  has  been  previously 
and  adequately  mastered  will  but  revive  associations,  not 
construct  them. 

Summarizing  what  we  have  said  in  the  present  section,  we 
see  that  success  in  drill  demands  two  somewhat  broad  re- 
quirements. In  the  first  place,  it  shall  be  intelligent.  This 
involves  that  the  student  shall  be  conscious  of  a  real  problem, 
and  shall  realize  that  the  content  of  the  drill  is  the  solution 
of  that  problem.  Its  implications  shall  be  made  obvious,  thus 
facilitating  recall  by  providing  a  variety  of  associations.  Its 
concrete  applications  shall  be  so  incorporated  in  the  drill  that 
the  ability  to  use  what  he  has  learned  is  always  insured. 
The  second  requirement  is  that  the  drill  be  adequate.  The 
impression  must  be  deepened  by  repetition  not  so  extensive 
as  to  render  it  unintelligent  but  frequent  enough  to  prevent 
the  loss  of  the  association  through  lack  of  exercise. 

4.    PROPAEDEUTIC  FUNCTION  OF  THE  RECITATION 

Apperception  in  Teaching. — "Nine-tenths  of  teaching," 
says  Professor  Thorndike,1  "illustrates  the  use  or  abuse  of  the 
law  of  apperception."     While  the  recitation  activity  of  the 
1  Thorndike,  "Principles  of  Teaching,"  p.  43. 


THE   RECITATION   MODE  95 

class  exercise  has  its  phases  of  testing  and  drill  upon  old  ma- 
terial, it  has  also  a  forward  reference.  Learning  is  possible 
only  when  the  new  material  is  based  upon  past  experience, 
and  the  Herbartian  pedagogy  lays  great  stress  upon  the  im- 
portance of  refreshing  the  old  ideas  before  the  new  ideas  to  be 
associated  with  them  are  presented.  "When  it  happens  that 
the  newly  arrived  stranger  encounters  no  relatives  in  the 
consciousness,  and  that  nothing  can  rise  up  from  the  circle  of 
previous  experiences  to  welcome  it,  it  remains  obscure  and 
not  understood,  and  a  lifeless  verbalism  is  the  result.  If,  on 
the  contrary,  the  new  idea  arouses  a  wealth  of  older  ideas, 
crowding  actively  into  consciousness,  these  latter  become  just 
so  many  forces  to  assist  the  new  ideas  to  perfect  clearness, 
strength,  and  assurance.  They  are,  figuratively  speaking,  the 
welcoming  arms  with  which  the  new  arrival  is  embraced  and 
adopted."  l  It  is  a  matter  of  everyday  experience  that  the 
character  of  the  impression  made  upon  us  by  a  new  idea  de- 
pends to  a  great  degree  upon  the  ideas  already  prominent  in 
our  consciousness.  The  cry  of  "Fire !"  conveys  to  the  soldier 
on  the  battle  line  an  implication  very  different  from  that  sug- 
gested to  the  night  watchman  on  the  lookout  for  incendi- 
aries, and  each  is  the  more  ready  to  react  adequately  because 
his  previous  frame  of  mind  was  one  of  preparation  for  the 
event.  The  student  will  more  readily  learn  to  factor  x*  — 
x2  —  2X  —  i  when  he  has  just  before  reviewed  the  factoring 
of  a2  —  62.  A  recitation  reviewing  the  movements  of  the  op- 
posing armies  just  before  July  3,  1863,  and  the  popular  feel- 
ing in  North  and  South  at  the  tune,  will  put  the  class  in  the 
best  possible  position  to  undertake  the  study  of  the  battle  of 
Gettysburg. 

The  Recitation  as  Apperception. — It  is  in  this  preparatory 
activity  of  the  recitation  mode  that  its  propaedeutic  function 
is  realized.  In  a  well-planned  course  in  any  department  of 
study  there  is  always  a  unitariness  and  sequence,  in  accor- 
dance with  which  almost  every  lesson  is  a  logical  development 

1  Rein,  "Padagogik  in  Systematischer  Darstellung,"  pp.  498-499. 


96  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

from  the  preceding  one.  The  oft-quoted  principle  that  no 
material  should  be  taught  to  the  student  until  he  feels  the 
need  of  it  might  quite  as  well  be  expressed  in  the  statement 
that  each  lesson  or  topic  for  study  should,  so  far  as  possible, 
suggest  and  prepare  for  the  next  one.  The  recitation  mode, 
coming  as  it  does  usually  at  the  beginning  of  the  lesson  hour, 
is  the  most  natural  and  logical  preparation  for  the  new  ma- 
terial that  is  to  follow.  In  secondary  education  especially  it 
corresponds  to  the  first  of  the  five  "formal  steps,"  i.  e.,  to  the 
preparation  step  of  the  Herbartian  pedagogy. 

The  recitation  mode,  when  thus  utilized  as  a  preparatory 
step,  serves  to  revive  old  ideas  and  interests  upon  which  the 
new  lesson  is  to  be  based.  A  recitation  upon  the  Persian 
wars  and  the  ultimate  victory  of  the  Greeks  would  at  the 
same  time  serve  admirably  as  a  preparation  step  for  the  study 
of  the  growth  of  the  Athenian  Empire  and  the  Delian  League, 
since  the  causes  and  significance  of  the  latter  can  be  under- 
stood only  when  the  class  have  the  former  fresh  in  conscious- 
ness. Obviously  the  recitation  need  not  be  restricted  to  the 
material  which  the  class  have  prepared  specifically  for  the 
day,  but  should  instead  include  a  somewhat  rapid  review  of 
all  previously  studied  material  which  the  new  lesson  is  to 
presuppose  and  directly  utilize.  Thus  opportunity  is  provided 
the  teacher  for  the  selection  and  emphasis  of  the  material 
upon  which  the  new  lesson  is  to  be  based.  He  can  make  sure 
that  the  entire  class  have  a  common  view-point  and  a  com- 
plete, well-selected,  and  properly  emphasized  apperceptive 
mass.  Without  in  any  way  detracting  from  the  provision  for 
individual  differences,  he  leads  all  his  pupils  up  to  a  recogni- 
tion of  the  same  situation,  the  same  problem,  and  to  a  con- 
siderable degree  the  same  data  for  the  solution  of  the  problem. 
With  this  accomplished,  a  common  interest  in  the  new  les- 
son is  practically  assured. 

Must  every  employment  of  the  recitation  mode  have  this 
propaedeutic  function?  Is  it  not  best  occasionally  to  devote 


THE  RECITATION  MODE  97 

an  entire  class  exercise  to  recitation?  If  custom  is  an  ade- 
quate justification,  the  latter  question  will  certainly  demand 
an  affirmative  answer,  for  the  recitation  mode  is  practically 
the  only  one  employed  by  many  who  are  considered  fairly 
successful  teachers.  Such  teaching,  however,  is  at  best 
drudgery  when  made  more  than  an  occasional  practice,  and 
the  vitality  which  sometimes  accompanies  it  is  merely  an  ac- 
companiment, not  an  inherent  part  of  the  instruction.  It  is 
the  vitality  of  the  teacher's  personality,  and  exists  not  be- 
cause of  but  in  spite  of  the  method.  If  the  vitality  is  sufficient 
to  survive  in  this  artificial  situation,  what  might  it  not  be 
when  the  zest  of  discovery  and  progress  pervades  the  class 
exercise !  The  recitation  mode  is  the  easiest  to  employ,  and 
is  naturally  the  one  into  which  the  lazy  or  non-progressive 
teacher  is  apt  to  fall.  Moreover,  being  the  simplest  in  char- 
acter, it  is  the  one  most  readily  and  commonly  imitated.  Is 
it  too  harsh  to  assert  that  a  large  part  of  our  high  school 
teachers,  especially  those  whose  professional  training  has 
shown  them  no  better  way,  may  be  classed  as  either  lazy, 
non-progressive,  or  imitative?  If  a  study  of  method  has 
any  claim  to  virtue,  it  is  that  it  enables  the  teacher  to  employ 
not  one  mode  of  instruction  but  many.  It  lifts  him  above  the 
slavery  of  routine  and  renders  him  free  and  efficient  in  his 
educational  activities.  To  the  question  with  which  the  pres- 
ent paragraph  opened,  the  answer  seems  to  be  that  the  reci- 
tation mode,  as  indeed  any  mode  of  instruction,  may  in  rare 
cases  occupy  the  entire  class  exercise,  especially  when  it  is 
made  the  occasion  for  extensive  amplification  and  interpre- 
tation of  the  material  recited  upon.  However,  when  the 
teacher  finds  such  procedure  becoming  at  all  common,  it  will 
be  well  for  both  himself  and  his  pupils  if  he  blaze  for  himself 
new  trails  in  the  domain  of  method.  The  best  results  in  teach- 
ing are  attained  not  by  the  exclusive  use  of  any  one  mode  of 
instruction,  but  by  various  combinations  of  modes  adapted 
to  various  pedagogical  aims. 


PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 


5.    SUMMARY 

The  recitation  is  more  than  a  reciting  of  memorized  ma- 
terial, but  should  serve  the  threefold  function  of  testing,  drill, 
and  propsedeutic. 

As  a  testing  exercise  its  aim  is  to  insure  progress  by  de- 
termining the  student's  faithfulness  in  study,  the  adequacy 
of  his  lesson  preparation,  the  adequacy  of  the  instruction, 
and  the  appropriateness  of  the  material  taught,  and  by  pro- 
viding opportunity  for  explanation  and  correction.  Faith- 
fulness of  lesson  preparation  is  not  necessarily  identical  with 
preparation  sufficient  for  further  progress.  The  oral  quiz 
serves  to  enforce  lesson  preparation,  to  amplify  what  has  been 
studied,  to  correct  errors,  to  provide  for  generalizations,  and 
to  offer  opportunity  for  application.  The  examination  differs 
from  the  recitation  in  that  it  covers  a  much  wider  scope  and 
that  class  discussion  is  practically  precluded. 

Drill  aims  to  render  permanent  and  readily  usable  certain 
intellectual  processes  and  knowledge  which  are  sufficiently 
formal  in  character  and  general  in  application  to  permit  of 
their  automatic  employment.  Drill  has  accordingly  a  limited 
sphere  of  usefulness.  Drill  upon  processes,  as  habit  forma- 
tion, involves  the  two  steps  of  initiation  and  fixation.  Drill 
upon  facts,  as  memory  formation,  involves  training  in  learn- 
ing, retention,  recall,  and  recognition,  in  so  far  as  each  of 
these  is  amenable  to  training.  The  content,  in  memory 
formation,  must  be  deeply  impressed  and  widely  and  strongly 
associated.  Repetition  is  the  fundamental  process  in  drill, 
which  must  be  intelligent,  applied,  and  sufficient  in  degree. 

The  propaedeutic  function  of  the  recitation  mode  lies  in 
the  fact  that  the  review  of  any  content  may  serve  also  as  the 
preparation  for  instruction  of  further  related  content.  This 
function  is  realized  in  a  proper  combination  in  the  class  exer- 
cise of  the  various  modes  of  instruction. 


THE   RECITATION   MODE  99 


QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Should  the  spirit  of  the  testing  in  the  recitation  mode  be  that 
of  trying  to  catch  the  delinquent?     If  not,  what  spirit  should  prevail 
instead  ? 

2.  When  all  the  class  show  inadequate  preparation  of  the  lesson, 
how  would  you  proceed  to  deal  with  the  situation  ? 

3.  When  a  considerable  number  of  the  class  repeatedly  fail  to 
prepare  lessons,  how  would  you  deal  with  the  situation? 

4.  What  are  the  objections  to  beginning  each  class  exercise  with  a 
brief  written  test  on  the  lesson  assigned  for  the  day  ? 

5.  Some  teachers  require  pupils  to  grade  their  own  test  papers. 
What  are  the  advantages  and  the  disadvantages  of  so  doing? 

6.  A  physics  pupil  was  perfectly  familiar  with  the  formula,  "Violet, 
indigo,  blue,  green,  yellow,  orange,  red,"  but  did  not  know  to  what  the 
formula  referred.     What  was  wrong  with  his  drill  ? 

7.  A  history  pupil  could  not  recall  the  name  "Magna  Charta," 
but  readily  recognized  it  when  prompted.     What  was  wrong  with  his 
memorizing  ? 

8.  Would  it  be  well  to  memorize  the  demonstration  of  a  difficult 
proposition  in  geometry  after  it  is  thoroughly  understood? 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READINGS 

Thorndike,  "Education,"  §§  17,  25. 

Strayer,  "Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process,"  chaps.  IV,  X. 

Parker,  "Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools,"  chap.  VIII. 

Bagley,  "Educative  Process,"  chap.  XXII. 

Colvin,  "An  Introduction  to  High  School  Teaching,"  chaps.  VIII, 

IX,  X. 
Thorndike,  "Principles  of  Teaching,"  chap.  IV. 


CHAPTER  VII 

LESSON  DEVELOPMENT 
i.    LEARNING  AND  FEELING 

Situation  and  Response. — The  entire  intellectual  life  of 
the  child  seems  to  consist  in  encountering  situations  and  re- 
acting to  them.  The  teacher  is  constantly  leading  him  to  ap- 
propriate situations,  and  inciting  and  directing  him  to  the 
best  reactions.  The  entire  curriculum  is  for  the  student  a 
system  of  situations  so  selected  and  organized  that  the  reac- 
tion to  one  serves  as  the  introduction  to  the  next.  To  the 
high  school  student  the  problem  in  mathematics,  the  Latin 
rule  to  be  mastered,  or  the  poem  to  be  studied  provides  a 
situation  demanding  from  him  some  suitable  response.  In  the 
preceding  chapter  we  treated  the  recitation  mode  as  the  re- 
action to  a  situation  previously  encountered,  and  recalled  for 
further  consideration.  The  treatment  of  a  new  situation,  one 
which  the  student  has  not  already  encountered,  calls  for  the 
employment  of  somewhat  different  modes  of  instruction. 

The  Meeting  of  Situations. — In  dealing  with  a  new  situ- 
ation, or,  in  the  language  of  the  school,  in  advance  work,  the 
procedure  seems  to  fall  into  certain  fairly  well-defined  ele- 
ments or  steps.  Confronted  with  an  electrical  phenomenon 
in  physics,  the  student  first  observes  it  to  see  what  has  hap- 
pened, under  what  conditions,  and  what  about  it  is  not  readily 
understood.  Thus  he  becomes  familiar  with  the  problem- 
atic situation.  Possibly  it  may  not  interest  him  further,  in 
which  case  it  ceases  to /be  a  problem  to  him  and  receives  no 
further  consideration.  But  if  it  is  to  be  solved,  it  must  ap- 
peal to  his  interest;  it  must  challenge  him  with  a  demand  for 
its  solution.  In  response  to  that  challenge  or  appeal,  he  pro- 
ceeds to  investigate  for  the  explanation  of  the  phenomenon, 


LESSON  DEVELOPMENT  IOI 

the  solution  of  the  problem.  Finally,  he  gives  expression  to 
the  knowledge  thus  secured  in  the  explanation  or  construc- 
tion of  some  electrical  device  which  occurs  to  him.  A  similar 
process  occurs  when  he  encounters  a  new  proposition  in  geom- 
etry, an  unfamiliar  sentence  structure  in  French,  or  a  polit- 
ical movement  in  history.  Or  his  response  may  be  not  merely 
intellectual  but  one  of  feeling,  as  in  the  case  of  the  literary 
selection,  to  which  he  responds  principally  by  appreciation. 
So  we  find  that  whenever  the  instruction  is  based  upon  the 
mastery  of  new  situations  there  are  involved  for  the  student 
these  four  phases  or  steps  :  the  knowledge  of  the  situation,  its 
appeal  to  him,  his  response  to  it,  and  the  consequent  expres- 
sion. With  any  of  these  four  elements  lacking,  the  treat- 
ment of  a  lesson  upon  new  material  is  incomplete  and  its  value 
largely  lost. 

By  knowledge  of  a  situation  is  meant  an  acquaintance 
with  its  facts  and  conditions,  so  that  the  student  encounter- 
ing it  has  an  adequate  basis  for  its  interpretation.  But  as 
knowledge  alone  will  lead  him  to  nothing  unless  it  has  an 
appeal  to  the  student's  interest,  the  situation  must  be  such 
as  to  challenge  his  activity;  he  must  feel  it  not  merely  as  a 
problem  or  aesthetic  situation  but  as  his  problem  or  situation. 
After  the  knowledge  and  the  appeal  of  the  situation  follows 
directly  the  student's  response  to  it.  The  response  may  be 
either  an  intellectual  one,  such  as  the  discovery  of  a  new  fact 
or  the  solution  of  a  thought-problem,  or  it  may  be  a  sen- 
timental one,  with  appreciation  as  the  dominant  factor.  Fi- 
nally, the  whole  culminates  in  expression,  whether  of  the 
fact  or  principle  acquired  or  of  the  sentimental  experience. 

Types  of  Response.  —  The  dominant  factor  in  the  response 
to  the  situation  may  be,  as  we  have  said,  either  intellectual 
or  sentimental.  One  type  of  situation  centres  about  the 
acquisition  of  desired  information  or  the  solution  of  a  sug- 
gested problem.  In  the  other  the  knowledge  factor  is 
merely  incidental,  serving  as  a  means  to  the  arousal  of  an 
attitude  or  feeling.  We  may  thus  charaaa»  JLbe  two  as 


STATE  TEACHER'S  COLLEGE 
BARBARA  CALIFORNIA 


102  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

the  learning  type  and  the  feeling  type,  yet  not  forgetting 
that  they  are  merely  types,  and  that  no  hard-and-fast  line  of 
distinction  can  be  drawn  between  them.  Thus,  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  procedure  in  a  presidential  electoral  college  or  an 
exercise  in  physics  might  illustrate  the  problematic  type,  the 
study  of  a  literary  selection  the  feeling  or  appreciation  type. 

2.    DEVELOPMENT  IN  TEACHING 

Meaning  of  Development. — We  have  seen  that  learning 
and  feeling  are  the  student's  activity  in  the  face  of  a  new 
situation,  and  that  it  is  the  teacher's  function  to  induce  and 
direct  that  activity.  Moreover,  the  activity  must  be  recip- 
rocal, with  both  class  and  instructor  in  constant,  intelligent 
co-operation.  Teacher's  questions  must  stimulate  student's 
thought  and  counter-question.  What  is  known  must  incite 
to  further  discovery,  and  recourse  must  be  had  to  every 
suitable  source  of  information,  whether  text-book,  instructor, 
experiment,  or  past  experience.  Word  picture  must  stimu- 
late imagination,  beauty  of  form  must  induce  aesthetic  re- 
sponse. Point  must  lead  to  point,  and  each  moment  must 
bring  to  consciousness  a  need  for  the  next  moment  to  supply. 
Here  is  evidently  the  place  where  the  development  type  of 
questioning  described  in  Chapter  V  will  find  its  chief  applica- 
tion. To  this  reciprocal  activity,  with  the  teacher  as  inspirer 
and  guide,  and  directed  toward  the  accomplishment  of  the 
learning  and  feeling  processes,  we  shall  give  the  name  de- 
veloping. 

Whether  the  thing  sought  in  the  lesson  be  knowledge,  or 
process,  or  feeling,  the  teaching  consists  in  directing  the 
thought  of  .the  class  toward  the  accomplishment  of  the  desired 
end,  supplying  data  when  needed,  and  even  suggesting  ideas 
which  the  class  are  qualified  to  appropriate  and  use  but  not 
to  originate.  Through  this  directing,  supplying,  and  assist- 
ing activity  of  the  teacher,  and  the  reciprocal  activity  of  the 
class,  the  lesson  develops  step  by  step  from  situation  to 


LESSON  DEVELOPMENT  103 

response,  from  goal  set  to  goal  attained,  and  it  is  to  this 
joint  activity  that  the  name  "lesson  development"  or  "de- 
velopment instruction"  is  applied.1 

A  typical  lesson  development  would  be  that  of  the  dem- 
onstration of  the  geometrical  proposition  that  the  diagonals 
of  a  parallelogram  bisect  each  other.  In  this  case  the  teacher 
could,  by  a  series  of  questions  and  occasional  suggestions, 
conduct  the  class  from  the  knowledge  of  the  relationship  of 
parallel  lines  and  transversals,  of  equal  angles,  and  of  con- 
gruent triangles  to  the  deduction  of  the  equality  of  the  seg- 
ments of  the  diagonals.  In  like  manner,  deriving  its  data 
from  the  experience  and  suggestions  of  all  its  members,  a 
class  in  science  may  through  general  discussion  be  led  to  an 
understanding  of  geysers,  of  the  electric  telegraph,  or  of  the 
relation  between  a  plant's  leaf-and-stem  structure  and  its 
demand  for  moisture.  A  lesson  on  the  canning  of  berries 
might  be  developed  by  leading  from  a  consideration  of  the 
cause  of  decay  of  fruits  to  a  study  of  various  preservative 
processes  and  materials,  and  their  application  to  the  fruit 
under  consideration. 

In  lesson  development  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  class 
supply  all  the  facts  or  even  do  all  the  thinking.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  student  must  be  trained  to  utilize  all  available 
sources  of  information,  whether  past  experience  or  classroom 
experiment,  the  text-book  or  the  teacher.  Even  in  the  think- 
ing, the  instructor  must  usually  direct  the  train  of  thought, 
and  even  supply  bits  of  the  reasoning  which  the  pupil  is  in- 
capable of  originating.  The  essential  is  that  the  student  is 
intellectually  active  throughout,  never  merely  recording  but 
always  thinking  through,  mastering,  and  making  his  own  the 
new  material,  whether  fact  or  process,  argument  or  feeling. 
The  source  of  material  is  but  incidental.  Whether  a  lesson 
is  developed  rather  than  merely  recorded  by  the  student  is 
essentially  a  question  of  the  student's  activity. 

1  The  reader  will  observe  that  the  term  "development"  has  here  a 
wider  connotation  than  is  usually  given  it  by  writers  on  teaching  method. 


104  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

Thus  it  follows  that  such  a  topic  as  the  battle  of  Gettys- 
burg may  be  developed,  by  making  use  of  map,  of  text-book, 
of  the  student's  knowledge  of  preliminary  conditions,  and  of 
the  teacher's  recital  of  facts.  The  development  of  Tenny- 
son's "Break,  Break,  Break"  is  but  a  matter  of  so  studying 
the  poem  with  the  class  that  they  are  led  to  an  appreciation 
of  it.  In  fact,  simply  reading  a  selection  well,  with  an  occa- 
sional comment  and  question,  may  at  times  constitute  a 
development  of  it.  The  teaching  of  the  use  of  normal,  in- 
verted, and  transposed  order  in  German  will  be  a  develop- 
ment provided  the  class  are  actively  responsive  in  both 
thought  and  word  in  the  explanation  and  interpretation  of 
the  principles  involved. 

Development  involves  a  logical  procedure  from  point  to 
point,  and  a  step-by-step  advance  from  a  given  situation  to 
its  intellectual  and  emotional  implications.  Because  of  this 
orderly,  systematic  procedure  with  definite  conscious  aim,  it 
involves  much  more  than  the  term  "conversation"  would 
suggest.1  It  differs  from  the  recitation  mode  in  that  it  deals 
with  a  new  situation  instead  of  one  already  met.  It  differs 
from  lecturing  in  that  it  involves  the  active  participation  of 
the  student  in  the  discovery  and  formulation  of  the  material 
and  its  appreciation.  It  differs  from  study  in  that  the  teacher 
is  constantly  active  in  the  arousal  and  guidance  of  the  stu- 
dent's thought.  In  other  words,  whenever  both  teacher  and 
class  are  reciprocally  active  in  the  learning  and  feeling  proc- 
esses of  the  class  exercise,  the  procedure  is  called  development. 
Thus,  as  the  term  is  here  employed,  development  is  more 
than  a  method.  It  is  the  method  of  teaching  new  material, 
if  we  have  justified  our  position  that  only  reciprocal  activity 
in  the  class  exercise  constitutes  teaching.  If  lecturing  can 
be  classed  as  teaching,  as  is  the  case  with  advanced  pupils,  it 

1  Parker  suggests  the  substitution  of  the  term  "conversational  method" 
for  "development  method."  His  warning  against  wandering  and  poorly 
distributed  activity  in  the  use  of  the  "conversational  method"  would  have 
less  force  were  he  to  adhere  to  the  term  "development "  as  above  employed. 
Cf.  Parker,  "Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools,"  pp.  437-438,  441. 


LESSON   DEVELOPMENT  10$ 

is  only  when  there  is  a  constant  active  intellectual  response 
on  the  part  of  the  class,  even  though  unexpressed. 

Value  of  Lesson  Development, — The  great  pedagogical 
merit  of  development  as  a  form  of  instruction  is  generally 
recognized,  especially  in  Germany,  where  the  thorough  train- 
ing of  teachers  facilitates  its  employment.  The  German 
school  recognizes  the  function  of  the  class  exercise  as  an 
occasion  not  for  recitation  merely  but  for  learning  as  well. 
For  example,  the  Prussian  school  regulations  specify  that  the 
first  essays  by  the  students  shall  be  written  in  the  class  exer- 
cise rather  than  as  an  outside  assignment.  In  practice,  how- 
ever, the  employment  of  development  in  instruction  is  neither 
common  nor  easy.  We  are  prone  to  subordinate  power  to 
information,  and  to  neglect  the  development  because  the 
information  can  be  imparted  so  much  more  quickly  by  telling 
or  reading.  Moreover,  lecturing  and  recitation  are  easy  in 
comparison,  and  as  a  result  a  large  part  of  high  school  instruc- 
tion is  in  the  form  of  these.  Development  demands  the  ex- 
ercise of  all  the  qualities  of  leadership,  including  a  readiness 
in  the  interpretation  of  the  child  mind,  a  strong  power  of 
suggestion,  a  thorough  knowledge  of  perspective,  and  the 
capacity  to  adapt  and  utilize  the  unexpected  in  the  realiza- 
tion of  a  desired  plan.  However,  despite  its  difficulty  of 
acquisition  and  employment,  the  lesson  development  more 
than  repays  the  effort  required. 

Possibly  the  most  common  objection  raised  to  develop- 
ment instruction  is  that  it  does  for  the  student  what  he  should 
be  trained  to  do  for  himself,  in  his  study.  This  objection 
arises  from  a  misconception  of  the  character  of  development. 
Doing  a  pupil's  thinking  and  learning  for  him  is  not  develop- 
ment. On  the  contrary,  developing  a  lesson  involves  doing 
for  the  student  what  he  cannot  do  for  himself,  doing  it  at  the 
moment  he  needs  it,  and  insuring  its  mastery  before  further 
progress.  Instruction  by  a  good  teacher  is  far  superior  to 
self-teaching  out  of  a  text-book  because  of  its  adaptation  to 
the  movement  of  thought  and  the  individual  needs  of  pupils. 


106  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

The  text-book  is  at  its  best  only  when  it  supplements  the 
teacher,  not  supplants  him.  Many  a  text-book  in  the  mar- 
ket to-day  is  far  better  adapted  for  use  in  a  correspondence 
course  than  in  school  instruction,  and  owes  its  popularity  to 
the  fact  that  it  undertakes  to  relieve  the  poor  teacher  of  the 
most  exacting  part  of  his  work. 

3.   GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  DEVELOPMENT  INSTRUCTION 

However  widely  the  modes  of  development  instruction 
may  differ  in  many  respects,  there  are  certain  respects  in 
which  they  are  fundamentally  similar.  In  every  case  there 
is  a  measure  of  acquisition,  of  reflection,  and  of  expression, 
whether  the  factor  of  appreciation  be  included  or  not,  and  we 
can  discover  a  number  of  general  principles  which,  with  vary- 
ing degrees  of  applicability,  hold  in  all  developmental  proce- 
dure, whether  of  the  problematic  or  of  the  appreciation  mode. 
Although  variously  stated  and  interpreted,  there  is  a  marked 
degree  of  agreement  regarding  the  principles,  some  of  which 
have  come  down  to  us  from  the  seventeenth  century  with 
but  little  change  of  form. 

Known  to  Unknown.— ^Proceed  from  the  known  to  the 
unknown.  Thought  occupies  itself  only  with  that  which 
interests  it,  and  interest  is  possible  only  with  that  which 
bears  some  relation  to  what  is  already  familiar.  This  is  prac- 
tically a  restatement  of  the  principle  of  apperception.  As 
the  child  apperceives  the  new  in  terms  of  the  old,  so  the  high 
school  student  interprets  the  new  situation  through  the  me- 
dium of  his  past  experiences,  and  the  new  situation  be- 
comes a  situation  for  him  only  in  so  far  as  it  is  seen  to  arise 
out  of  existing  interests.  Thus  both  the  student's  acquain- 
tance with  the  new  situation  and  his  response  to  it  are  depen- 
dent upon  the  procedure  from  the  known  to  the  unknown. 
In  geography  we  begin  with  the  school  grounds  and  the 
home  town,  and  gradually  extend  the  field  of  study  to  ever 
more  and  more  remote  lands.  In  Latin  the  student's  famil- 


LESSON  DEVELOPMENT  107 

iarity  with  the  first  conjugation  is  made  the  basis  for  his  study 
of  the  second  conjugation.  The  multiplication  by  polyno- 
mials in  algebra  is  made  more  clear  when  its  relation  to 
the  multiplication  by  monomials  and  its  analogy  to  arithmeti- 
cal multiplication  are  first  shown.  Whittier's  "Snowbound" 
would  have  little  meaning  to  the  schoolboy  who  was  not  able 
to  construct  the  background  out  of  his  own  experience.  In 
any  field  of  study  the  teacher  who  at  the  opening  of  the  class 
exercise  plunges  directly  into  material  unfamiliar  to  his  class 
will  soon  discover  that  his  pupils  are  not  with  him,  and  that 
he  is  travelling  alone. 

To  say  that  instruction  must  take  its  beginnings  in  the 
familiar  implies  that  the  teacher  shall  know  what  is  the 
familiar.  He  must  know  the  " apperceptive  mass"  of  those 
whom  he  would  instruct.  One  of  the  most  common  as  well 
as  serious  mistakes  of  the  beginning  teacher  is  that  of  over- 
estimating the  knowledge  and  experience  of  his  students. 
Facts  and  judgments  which  are  familiar  to  him  and  are  mis- 
taken by  hmi  for  the  acquisitions  of  his  childhood  may  repre- 
sent the  gradual  and  unconscious  acquisition  of  his  college 
life  and  be  quite  unknown  to  the  high  school  boy  and  girl. 
The  teacher  must  be  able  to  put  himself  in  the  place  of  the 
student,  seeing  things  through  the  latter's  eyes,  and  inter- 
preting them  in  terms  of  his  adolescent  experience. 

Analogy. — It  is  probably  no  violation  of  logic  to  view  the 
use  of  analogy  as  a  phase  of  procedure  from  known  to  un- 
known. In  teaching  by  analogy  the  relation  of  the  unknown 
to  the  known,  the  new  to  the  old,  is  not  a  matter  of  degree 
of  complexity,  as  is  so  often  the  case  where  the  known  is  the 
simpler  and  the  unknown  is  such  because  of  its  greater  com- 
plexity. The  relation  in  analogy  is  rather  one  based  upon 
similarity,  so  that,  in  place  of  a  connection  based  upon  con- 
tent, analogy  is  founded  mainly  upon  the  form  of  thought. 
There  is  a  close  parallelism  between  the  relationship  of  ele- 
ments in  the  two  analogous  cases,  such  that  the  student's 
understanding  of  the  relationship  in  the  one  case  can  be 


108  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

utilized  in  leading  him  to  understand  the  other.  In  teaching 
the  student  to  multiply  a  +  b  +  cbya  +  c  the  teacher  will 
naturally  base  his  instruction  upon  two  known  processes,  the 
multiplication  of  a  +  b  -f-  c  by  a  and  c  separately,  and  an 
arithmetical  multiplication  such  as  12  X  431.  In  the  former 
process  the  relation  of  the  known  to  the  unknown  lies  not  in 
analogy  but  in  the  nature  of  the  content,  viewing  the  latter 
as  an  extension  of  the  principle  of  the  former.  In  the  analogy 
with  the  arithmetical  operation,  the  relation  is  in  the  simi- 
larity of  treatment  in  the  two  somewhat  dissimilar  problems. 
True  analogy  is  rarely  or  never  coincidental,  but  is  usually 
based  upon  a  real  connection  between  the  two  analogous  ele- 
ments. In  the'  illustration  just  cited  this  fundamental  con- 
nection between  the  arithmetical  and  the  algebraic  processes 
is  readily  noticed  by  the  student.  In  general,  the  more  fun- 
damental is  the  connection  the  better  is  the  analogy  and  the 
greater  its  educational  service. 

As  illustrations  of  the  use  of  analogy  in  teaching  might  be 
mentioned  the  following  much-used  explanations:  the  electric 
current  as  water  flowing  through  a  pipe,  the  nervous  system 
as  a  telephone  system,  the  advance  of  the  frontier  as  the  over- 
flow of  a  rising  lake  penetrating  the  surrounding  country  by 
following  the  lines  of  least  resistance,  and  the  spread  of  a 
political  or  social  propaganda  as  the  action  of  yeast  in  a 
mass  of  dough. 

Analogy  is  a  most  effectual  tool  in  the  hands  of  the  care- 
ful instructor.  It  is,  however,  a  tool  which  when  carelessly 
used  may  cause  serious  mischief.  The  fact  that  the  relation- 
ship is  mainly  one  of  similarity  leaves  room  for  the  student 
either  to  assume  too  great  a  degree  of  similarity  or  to  select 
the  wrong  elements  as  similar,  overlooking  the  ones  intended. 
In  the  mathematical  analogy  just  suggested  the  beginning 
student  might  infer  that  ac  should  be  placed  under  ab  in  the 
partial  products,  since  the  product  of  2  X  4  is  placed  under 
that  of  i  X  3.  The  use  of  the  analogy  in  explaining  the  doc- 
trine of  States'  rights  by  the  pupil's  right  of  withdrawal  at 


LESSON    DEVELOPMENT  I(X) 

will  from  membership  in  a  debating  society  may  lead  the 
student  to  a  fallacious  conception  of  the  Union  unless  the 
points  wherein  the  analogy  holds  are  clearly  indicated.  Thus 
the  employment  of  analogy  must  always  involve  a  clear  un- 
derstanding of  the  basis  and  scope  of  the  parallelism  which 
forms  its  foundation 

Simple  to  Complex — "Proceed  from  the  simple  to  the 
complex.''  This  maxim  would  be  less  subject  to  criticism  if  it 
read:  "Proceed  from  that  which  is  simple  for  the  student  to 
that  which  is  complex  for  him."  As  thus  interpreted,  the 
maxim  is  true,  for  the  child  mind  naturally  tends  to  under- 
stand and  appropriate  the  simple  before  the  complex.  This  is 
especially  true  where  the  relationships  studied  are  logical,  as 
in  mathematics,  rather  than  arbitrary,  as  in  some  problems  in 
botany.  Obviously,  it  is  wiser,  if  not  necessary,  to  lead  from 
multiplication  by  monomials  to  that  by  polynomials;  that  is, 
from  the  simpler  to  the  more  complex  processes,  rather  than 
in  the  reverse  direction.  The  working  of  the  electric  motor 
would  be  unintelligible  unless  the  principle  of  the  electric 
magnet  had  first  been  understood.  On  the  other  hand,  that 
which  is  logically  simple  may  be  pedagogically  complex,  and 
the  logically  complex  may  for  the  child  mind  be  relatively 
simple.  The  human  body  is  infinitely  more  complex  than  the 
amoeba,  yet  the  schoolboy  studies  it  first  because  it  is  within 
the  realm  of  his  present  experience  and  as  such  actually  the 
simpler  of  the  two  for  purposes  of  study.  The  logically  sim- 
ple may  not  as  such  be  immediately  a  matter  of  experience 
at  all,  but  rather  the  product  of  the  analysis  of  an  experience 
which  the  student  has  encountered  many  a  time,  yet  has 
never  analyzed  into  its  elements.  As  such  might  be  men- 
tioned the  conjugation  of  the  verb  in  English  grammar,  the 
function  of  seed  production  as  the  preservation  of  the  species, 
or  the  apparent  smallness  of  remote  objects  as  the  result  of 
the  smaller  retinal  image. 

Concrete  to  Abstract. — "Proceed  from  the  concrete  to 
the  abstract"  is  a  maxim  based  upon  a  truth,  although  itself 


110  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

only  a  half-truth.  It  is  true  that  each  abstraction  is  derived 
originally  from  concrete  experience,  but  it  is  equally  true 
that  every  concrete  act  of  thought  returns  again  to  the  con- 
crete. True  learning  springs  only  from  definite,  particular 
problems  or  situations  arising  in  the  student's  experience. 
When  the  same  situation  recurs  he  generalizes  regarding  it, 
and  applies  his  generalization  to  the  solution  of  similar  situa- 
tions as  they  are  encountered  later.  Thus,  we  should  let  our 
maxim  read:  "Proceed  from  the  concrete  through  the  ab- 
stract, and  then  back  again  to  the  concrete."  Neglect  of  the 
first  part  of  the  maxim  is  no  more  and  no  less  an  error  in 
teaching  than  neglect  of  the  second  part.  "Beginning  with 
definitions,  rules,  general  principles,  classifications,  and  the 
like,  is  a  common  form  of  the  first  error.  This  method  has 
been  such  a  uniform  object  of  attack  on  the  part  of  all  edu- 
cational reformers  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  dwell  upon  it 
further  than  to  note  that  the  mistake  is,  logically,  due  to  the 
attempt  to  introduce  deductive  considerations  without  first 
making  acquaintance  with  the  particular  facts  that  create  a 
need  for  the  generalizing  rational  devices.  .  .  .  The  isolation 
of  deduction  is  seen,  at  the  other  end,  wherever  there  is  failure 
to  clinch  and  test  results  of  the  general  reasoning  processes  by 
application  to  new  concrete  cases.  The  final  point  of  the 
deductive  devices  lies  in  their  use  in  assimilating  and  com- 
prehending individual  cases.  No  one  understands  a  general 
principle  fully — no  matter  how  adequately  he  can  demon- 
strate it,  to  say  nothing  of  repeating  it — till  he  can  employ  it 
in  the  mastery  of  new  situations,  which,  if  they  are  new,  differ 
in  manifestation  from  the  cases  used  in  reaching  the  generali- 
zation." 1 

Thus,  in  teaching  the  law  of  the  pendulum,  we  should 
first  experiment  with  a  pendulum,  then  generalize  regarding 
its  performance,  and  finally  test  and  apply  that  generaliza- 
tion with  other  pendulums.  The  rules  for  the  use  of  the  sub- 
junctive in  "ut  clauses"  must  first  be  derived  from  concrete 
1  Dewey,  "How  We  Think,"  pp.  98-99. 


LESSON   DEVELOPMENT  III 

instances  of  its  use,  and  must  be  followed  by  the  observation 
of  concrete  instances  of  the  rule's  application.  The  princi- 
ples of  the  relation  of  supply  and  demand  in  economics  must 
arise  from  actual  concrete  situations,  and  must  later  be  ap- 
plied in  the  interpretation  of  further  concrete  situations. 

In  the  procedure  from  the  concrete  through  the  abstract 
to  the  concrete,  we  have  virtually  a  procedure  from  the 
known  to  the  unknown.  The  concrete  situation  which  gives 
rise  to  the  thought  is  in  the  main  a  familiar  one.  It  is  only 
when  we  experience  an  incompleteness,  an  element  of  the 
unknown  in  the  otherwise  familiar  situation,  that  we  go  in 
quest  of  knowledge.  When  that  newly  acquired  knowledge 
has  validity  not  merely  for  the  situation  whence  we  started 
but  for  others  as  well,  it  becomes  a  generalization,  and  we  at 
once  apply  it  to  the  other  newer  situations  as  a  means  for 
their  solution.  Thus  it  is  as  impossible  to  begin  with  the 
abstract  and  proceed  to  the  concrete  as  to  begin  with  the 
new  and  proceed  to  the  familiar,  since  the  former  type  of 
procedure  would  but  coincide  with  the  latter. 

Illustration. — The  use  of  illustration  in  teaching  is  closely 
related  to  the  problem  of  concreteness  in  instruction.  Al- 
though the  term  is  variously  and  often  inaccurately  em- 
ployed, its  legitimate  use  is  limited  to  that  concrete  material 
which  is  employed  in  formulating  the  abstraction  and  show- 
ing its  implication.  The  concrete  which  follows  the  com- 
pleted abstraction  is  properly  application,  not  illustration, 
and  its  special  consideration  is  reserved  for  a  later  chapter. 
Illustration,  on  the  other  hand,  refers  to  all  of  the  concrete 
situations  from  which  the  abstraction  is  drawn.  It  includes 
all  the  instances  cited,  by  teacher  or  class,  for  the  purpose  of 
facilitating  the  abstraction.  This  might  easily  be  taken  to 
include  the  original  situation  out  of  which  the  entire  thought 
process  arises,  since  the  nature  and  function  of  this  initial 
situation  is  merely  an  instance,  usually  an  especially  typical 
and  suggestive  one,  of  the  principle  involved  in  the  abstrac- 
tion. In  studying  the  phenomena  of  stream  erosion,  the  par- 


112  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

ticular  instances  which  are  observed  in  the  discovery  of  prin- 
ciples deduced  serve  as  the  illustrations;  whereas  the  further 
cases,  for  whose  explanation  the  principles  are  employed 
(such  as  the  delta  of  the  Mississippi  and  the  formation  of  ox- 
bows), are  the  applications.  Thus,  the  function  of  the  illus- 
tration is  to  assist  in  leading  up  to  the  generalization  of  the 
lesson,  and  is  ultimately  inductive  in  character.  At  the  same 
tune  there  is  usually  a  constant  interplay  between  abstract 
and  concrete,  and  the  illustration  which  anticipates  the  prin- 
cipal generalization  may  serve  also  as  a  concrete  application 
of  a  principle  which  immediately  preceded  it.  The  concrete 
cases  which  served  as  applications  of  the  principle  of  stream 
erosion  may  at  the  same  time  serve  as  illustrations  from 
which  to  deduce  the  principle  of  the  general  levelling  action 
of  water.  Thus  illustration  is  not  necessarily  inductive  alone 
nor  deductive  alone,  but  often  both  at  once,  account  being 
taken  of  the  direction  in  which  it  is  made  to  point. 

"Begin  your  exposition  with  an  illustration"  is  a  word  of 
advice  often  heard.  Otherwise  stated,  it  means  that  the 
development  of  the  lesson  can  best  be  carried  out  when  it 
originates  in  a  concrete  situation.  Even  though  the  thought 
process  involved  is  to  be  deductive,  only  a  concrete  problem 
or  situation  will  serve  to  stimulate  the  student's  mental  ac- 
tivity, since  only  such  appeals  to  him  as  real  and  significant. 
The  first  words  of  a  lesson,  like  those  of  a  lecture,  often  deter- 
mine to  a  great  degree  the  attitude  of  the  hearer,  and  a  well- 
chosen,  aptly  put,  illustration  of  the  central  thought  of  the 
lesson  hour  will  work  wonders  in  creating  a  favorable  intellec- 
tual atmosphere  for  learning. 

Just  as  the  illustration  at  the  beginning  of  the  lesson 
development  assists  in  focussing  the  thought  of  the  class  upon 
the  situation  or  problem  to  be  considered,  so  its  use  during 
the  development  serves  to  clarify  that  situation,  and  leads 
the  student  to  realize  its  concrete  implications  as  its  various 
phases  present  themselves  in  the  course  of  the  class  exercise. 
In  other  words,  the  function  of  the  illustration  is  to  provide 


LESSON  DEVELOPMENT  113 

the  concrete  data  out  of  which  the  final  generalization  is  to 
be  derived.  To  attempt  to  teach  without  illustrating  is  to 
attempt  to  abstract  with  nothing  from  which  to  abstract.  It 
is  merely  formal  and  devoid  of  content.  The  abstraction  is 
but  the  skeleton;  the  illustration  is  the  flesh  and  blood.  In- 
deed, there  is  a  suggestion  of  truth,  though  a  measure  of 
error,  in  the  old  saying  that  it  matters  little  how  one  gen- 
eralizes so  long  as  his  illustrations  are  good. 

Requirements  of  Illustration. — What  are  the  essentials  of 
a  good  illustration?  As  its  function  is  the  supplying  of  data 
as  the  basis  for  generalizing,  obviously  the  best  illustration  is 
that  which  best  fulfils  that  function.  With  this  in  mind 
four  requirements  might  be  suggested. 

In  the  first  place,  the  illustration  must  be  familiar  to  the 
student.  Citing  the  desert  lizard  as  an  example  of  protective 
coloring  has  little  significance  for  the  New  York  schoolboy. 
Not  merely  is  the  familiar  more  interesting  to  him,  but  it 
alone  has  meaning  for  him,  since  it  represents  his  own  ex- 
perience. To  the  justice  of  this  requirement  all  will  give 
intellectual  assent.  Possibly  all  that  is  necessary,  therefore, 
is  to  recall  what  was  said  earlier  in  the  chapter,  where  the 
teacher  was  urged  to  proceed  from  the  known  to  the  unknown, 
since  the  principle  involved  and  the  importance  of  its  applica- 
tion are  the  same  in  both  cases. 

Secondly,  the  illustration  shall  be  accurate.  It  must  rep- 
resent the  principle  correctly,  and  must  not  be  something 
which,  however  suggestive  or  interesting  in  itself,  is  likely  to 
lead  the  student  to  an  erroneous  conclusion.  Illustrating  the 
wave  motion  of  sound  by  means  of  transverse  waves  on  a 
loosely  stretched  rope  is  very  apt  to  lead  the  student  to 
think  of  sound  waves  as  transverse  instead  of  longitudinal. 
To  find  accurate  and  suitable  illustrations  is  not  always  easy, 
but  when  unsatisfactory  ones  must  be  employed  the  teacher 
should  use  the  greatest  care  that  the  inaccuracy  is  not  per- 
mitted to  suggest  false  implications  to  the  student.  Sche- 
matic drawings,  idealized  pictures,  and  simplified  or  enlarged 


114  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

models  serve  a  real  purpose  in  instruction,  but  the  student 
must  be  made  to  appreciate  them  as  such.  What  is  to  the 
teacher  obviously  schematic,  idealized,  or  simplified  may  by 
the  inexperienced  and  uncritical  student  be  taken  for  an 
approximately  accurate  representation. 

Thirdly,  the  illustration  should  be  as  simple  as  is  con- 
sistent with  accuracy  and  adequacy.  If  it  is  well  chosen  and 
presented,  the  vital  point  to  be  illustrated  will  stand  out 
prominently  and  dearly,  with  no  occasion  for  the  unessential 
and  incidental  being  mistaken  for  the  fundamental.  Many 
an  illustration  otherwise  excellent  is  unsuitable  for  the  high 
school  student  because  of  its  complexity,  leading  to  confusion 
rather  than  clarifying  of  thought.  Better  one  or  two  helpful 
illustrations  well  understood  than  a  wealth  of  confusing  ones. 
Moreover,  an  illustration  may  be  so  striking  or  interesting  in 
itself  as  to  distract  the  student's  interest  from  the  thing  to  be 
illustrated  to  the  illustration  itself.  How  often  the  school- 
boy, when  told  to  observe  the  circulation  of  the  blood  under 
the  microscope,  is  so  attracted  by  the  shining  brass  and 
curious  mechanism  of  the  instrument  that  he  fails  to  see  the 
blood  circulation  at  all.  He  looks  not  through  the  micro- 
scope but  at  it. 

One  phase  of  the  problem  of  the  simplicity  of  illustration 
is  the  function  and  merit  of  specimens,  illustrative  apparatus 
and  models,  pictures,  diagrams,  and  maps,  when  used  as 
illustrative  material.  It  is  clear  that  all  five  serve  to 
strengthen  the  imagery  and  hence  to  deepen  the  impression 
made.  However,  apart  from  the  degree  to  which  they  serve 
this  purpose,  these  five  types  of  illustration  differ  essentially 
as  regards  the  conditions  to  which  they  are  adapted.  For  the 
purpose  of  acquainting  the  student  with  an  object  in  its 
entirety,  its  general  appearance,  or  character,  the  specimen 
or,  if  this  is  not  available,  the  picture  is  the  natural  type  of 
illustration.  On  the  other  hand,  the  diagram,  including  the 
map  as  one  of  its  special  forms,  is  used  to  show  in  isolation  a 
particular  relationship  between  the  parts  of  an  object  or  sys- 


LESSON  DEVELOPMENT  115 

tern.  The  apparatus  partakes  somewhat  of  the  nature  of 
both  specimen  and  diagram,  since  it  is  designed  to  combine 
the  objectivity  of  the  former  with  the  isolation  of  specific 
features  which  characterizes  the  latter.  Thus  the  require- 
ment of  simplicity  of  illustration  has  various  applications, 
according  to  the  aim  to  be  realized.  In  general  it  may  be 
said  that  the  picture  (including  the  word-picture)  may  offer 
so  many  details  as  to  distract  the  student's  attention.  Para- 
doxical though  the  statement  may  seem,  a  picture  may  offer 
to  the  student  more  of  detail  than  the  specimen  itself,  since 
the  inclusion  of  details  in  the  picture  implies  their  importance, 
whereas  when  confronted  by  the  specimen  the  student  recog- 
nizes the  necessity  of  distinguishing  for  himself  between  the 
essential  and  the  incidental.  On  the  other  hand,  when  first 
encountering  an  object  or  problem  for  study,  especially  if  a 
somewhat  complex  one,  it  is  usually  best  to  illustrate  first  by 
diagram  the  relationship  to  be  observed,  and  later  to  study 
the  specimen  itself  as  soon  as  the  student  is  ready  to  interpret 
what  he  sees.  Generally  speaking,  that  diagram  or  map  is 
best  which  shows  only  the  essentials  of  the  relationship  to  be 
illustrated,  that  apparatus  is  best  which  shows  the  process  or 
object  with  the  fewest  distracting  features,  and  that  picture 
or  specimen  is  best  in  which  the  essential  features,  while 
typical,  are  most  readily  and  simply  recognized. 

A  fourth  requirement  of  the  illustration  is  that  it  shall  be 
significant.  Every  teacher  has  been  impressed  with  the  fre- 
quency with  which  students  when  tested  seem  able  to  tell 
everything  about  an  illustration  except  what  it  was  intended 
to  illustrate.  The  concrete  instance  offered  was  simple  and 
interesting,  but  no  serious  effort  had  been  made  to  advance 
beyond  the  concrete  to  the  generalizations.  To  the  pupil 
who  does  not  infer  from  the  erosion  of  the  Niagara  gorge  to 
the  phenomenon  of  erosion  in  general,  the  intended  illustra- 
tion has  really  illustrated  nothing.  In  other  words,  the  illus- 
tration is  not  significant.  No  less  real,  though  less  extreme 
and  less  obvious,  is  the  case  of  the  student  who  can  state, 


Il6  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

usually  in  a  formal  way,  the  generalization  derived,  but  when 
asked  to  illustrate  it  can  cite  only  the  illustration  suggested 
in  the  class  exercise.  He  has  failed  to  catch  the  implication 
of  the  principle  involved,  or  what  is  essentially  the  same,  has 
attempted  to  generalize  from  a  single  instance.  Investigation 
will  usually  show  that  his  so-called  generalization  means  to 
him  not  a  general  principle  but  a  formalized  statement  of  the 
chief  feature  of  the  illustration  studied.  It  was  an  illustra- 
tion which  to  the  student  had  little  or  no  significance.  Call- 
ing upon  the  student  to  suggest  illustrations  when  the  prin- 
ciple is  being  developed,  as  well  as  later,  will  assist  both  in 
rendering  them  significant  and  in  testing  for  a  knowledge  of 
that  significance. 

Illustration  and  Analogy. — Between  illustration  and  anal- 
ogy it  is  difficult  to  draw  the  line,  if  indeed  a  line  of  distinc- 
tion exists.  Both  provide  concrete  instances  which  are  to 
assist  in  interpreting  relationships.  However,  in  the  case  of 
the  illustration,  the  instance  belongs  truly  under  the  class 
concerning  which  the  generalization  is  made,  whereas  hi  the 
analogy  the  relationships  compared  are  similar  in  some  con- 
spicuous feature,  but  the  instances  cited  cannot  be  classed 
together  for  the  generalization,  since  in  some  essential  points 
they  are  different.  The  mathematical  analogy  given  on 
page  108,  wherein  algebraic  multiplication  is  compared  to 
arithmetical,  cannot  itself  be  employed  as  an  illustration  of 
the  latter,  since,  for  the  student  at  least,  it  deals  with  a  differ- 
ent kind  of  material.  It  is  therefore  essential  that  in  the 
use  of  the  analogy  the  pupil  be  not  permitted  to  mistake  it 
for  an  illustration,  since  such  a  mistake  would  lead  to  a  false 
generalization. 

Student  Contribution. — We  have  suggested  three  general 
principles  of  development  in  instruction:  procedure  from 
known  to  unknown,  simple  to  complex,  and  concrete  through 
abstract  to  concrete.  There  remains  for  our  consideration  a 
fourth  principle,  the  importance  of  the  student's  contribution. 
In  a  previous  chapter,  as  indeed  throughout  the  book,  we 


LESSON  DEVELOPMENT  117 

have  emphasized  the  activity  of  the  student  as  the  basis  of 
all  learning.  Unless  the  class  participates  almost  constantly 
in  the  development,  instruction  loses  its  distinguishing  virtue 
and  falls  back  to  the  level  of  lecturing.  The  pupil  who  has 
supplied  data  or  suggestions  in  the  class  discussion,  whether 
he  derived  them  from  his  past  experience,  his  independent 
thought,  or  even  his  finding  of  them  in  the  book  before  him, 
feels  in  consequence  a  real  part  in  the  lesson  development, 
and  will  receive  a  correspondingly  greater  benefit.  The  im- 
portance of  drawing  out  the  students  and  challenging  them 
into  active  contribution  is  more  easy  to  preach  than  to  prac- 
tise. Its  difficulty  is  no  excuse  for  its  neglect,  though  it  cer- 
tainly is  a  prolific  cause  for  it  in  our  secondary  schools.  To 
suggest  how  to  secure  this  student  participation  in  the  devel- 
opment of  the  lesson  would  be  but  to  repeat  what  has  already 
been  said,  in  almost  every  chapter,  on  the  subject  of  class 
activity.  All  we  can  do  here,  therefore,  is  to  emphasize  anew 
its  importance  in  the  lesson  development  as  the  sine  qua  non 
of  developmental  instruction. 

The  same  principle  of  student  activity  which  renders 
development  instruction  so  serviceable  also  warns  against  the 
error  of  over-instruction.  In  the  effort  to  develop  new  ma- 
terial, and  in  the  enthusiasm  of  its  movement  and  activity, 
the  teacher  is  in  danger  of  losing  sight  of  the  reciprocal  func- 
tion of  the  class,  and  doing  with  and  for  the  student  what  the 
student  should  do  alone  and  for  himself.  The  class  exercise 
should  not  be  taken  as  the  sole  learning  activity.  On  the 
contrary,  it  should  give  the  student  the  impetus,  the  capacity, 
and  to  some  degree  the  materials  for  work,  but  so  far  as  pos- 
sible should  leave  to  him  the  actual  work.  Instruction 
should  invariably  develop  in  the  student  initiative  and  power 
of  self-direction,  and  the  class  exercise  should  merely  start, 
not  complete,  the  activity  of  learning.  Working  out  the 
demonstration  of  all  the  advance  propositions  or  exercises  in 
mathematics,  translating  the  advance  lesson  in  Latin,  or  sup- 
plying the  details  of  the  advance  lesson  in  history  would  tend 


Il8  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

to  render  the  students  not  independent  but  dependent,  not 
pushers  but  leaners. 

Applicability  of  Lesson  Development.  —  Recalling  the 
statement,  made  at  the  beginning  of  the  chapter,  that  develop- 
ment is  the  method  of  teaching  new  material,  or  advance 
work,  it  must  be  realized  that  not  all  material  needs  to  be 
taught.  Not  infrequently  the  new  material  is  so  simple  in 
character  and  so  easily  understood  that  it  needs  little  or  no 
teaching  by  the  instructor.  Often  it  consists  of  material  the 
independent  working  out  of  which  is  within  the  student's 
capacity  and  is  of  its  greatest  educational  value  only  as  it  is 
so  mastered  by  the  student  without  help  or  hint  from  the 
instructor.  With  few  exceptions,  such  material  will  involve 
not  new  methods  or  principles  but  new  examples  and  applica- 
tions of  methods  and  principles  already  developed  in  the 
classroom.  The  original  exercise  in  geometry,  the  transla- 
tion of  a  passage  in  Latin,  the  interpretation  of  a  complex 
chemical  reaction,  or  the  tracing  of  the  military  manoeuvres 
in  a  battle  would  usually  fall  under  this  type  of  new  material, 
and  would  at  most  justify  occasional  hints  from  the  teacher 
to  help  over  points  of  especial  difficulty.  Such  hints,  if  likely 
to  be  needed  by  a  large  part  of  the  students,  may  best  be 
given  in  the  assignment,  otherwise  as  individual  assistance  to 
students,  especially  in  the  form  of  supervised  study.  (Cf.  page 
241.) 

4.    TYPICAL  FORMS  OF  DEVELOPMENT 

Books  on  teaching  usually  devote  much  attention  to  what 
are  known  as  the  Socratic,  the  heuristic,  and  the  lecture 
methods  of  instruction.  This  emphasis  has  done  much  good, 
yet  not  a  little  harm,  the  latter  being  due  mainly  to  a  failure 
to  appreciate  the  spirit  of  the  three  types.  Moreover,  their 
difference  is  found  to  be  more  seeming  than  real  when  they 
are  properly  understood  and  employed. 

Socratic  Method. — In  the  Socratic  method  the  instruction 
takes  the  form  of  a  cleverly  directed  dialogue,  in  which  there 


LESSON   DEVELOPMENT  119 

are  put  to  the  student  questions  the  answering  of  which 
suggests  to  him  implications  of  which  he  was  hitherto  un- 
conscious. The  instructor  tells  but  little,  restricting  his 
activities  to  a  series  of  questioning  which  the  student  blindly 
follows  to  an  outcome  which  not  he  but  the  teacher  had 
anticipated.  The  following  selection,  in  which  Socrates  is 
leading  his  followers  to  a  definition  of  justice,  illustrates  the 
use  of  the  Socratic  method  as  practised  by  the  philosopher 
himself. 


What  was  our  definition,  Polemarchus? 

That  a  friend  is  one  who  seems  to  be  an  honest  man. 

And  what  is  to  be  our  new  definition? 

That  a  friend  is  one  who  not  only  seems  to  be,  but  really  is,  an 
honest  man;  whereas  the  man  who  seems  to  be,  but  is  not  honest,  is 
not  really  a  friend,  but  only  seems  one.  And  I  define  an  enemy  on 
the  same  principle. 

Then  by  this  way  of  speaking,  the  good  man  will,  in  all  likelihood, 
be  a  friend,  and  the  wicked  an  enemy. 

Yes. 

Then  you  would  have  us  attach  to  the  idea  of  justice  more  than 
we  at  first  included  in  it,  when  we  called  it  just  to  do  good  to  our 
friend  and  evil  to  our  enemy.  We  are  now,  if  I  understand  you,  to 
make  an  addition  to  this,  and  render  it  thus — it  is  just  to  do  good  to 
our  friend  if  he  is  a  good  man,  and  to  hurt  our  enemy  if  he  is  a  bad 
man. 

Precisely  so,  he  replied;  and  I  think  that  this  would  be  a  right 
statement. 

Now  is  it  the  act  of  a  just  man,  I  asked,  to  hurt  anybody? 

Certainly  it  is,  he  replied;  that  is  to  say,  it  is  his  duty  to  hurt  those 
who  are  both  wicked,  and  enemies  of  his. 

Are  horses  made  better,  or  worse,  by  being  hurt? 

Worse. 

Worse  with  reference  to  the  excellence  of  dogs,  or  that  of  horses? 

That  of  horses. 

Are  dogs  in  the  same  way  made  worse  by  being  hurt,  with  refer- 
ence to  the  excellence  of  dogs,  and  not  of  horses  ? 

Unquestionably  they  are. 

And  must  we  not,  on  the  same  principle,  assert,  my  friend,  that 
men,  by  being  hurt,  are  lowered  in  the  scale  of  human  excellence? 

Indeed  we  must. 


120  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

But  is  not  justice  a  human  excellence  ? 

Undoubtedly  it  is. 

And  therefore,  my  friend,  those  men  who  are  hurt  must  needs  be 
rendered  less  just. 

So  it  would  seem. 

Can  musicians,  by  the  art  of  music,  make  men  unmusical? 

They  cannot. 

Can  riding-masters,  by  the  art  of  riding,  make  men  bad  riders? 

No. 

But  if  so,  can  the  just  by  justice  make  men  unjust?  In  short,  can 
the  good  by  goodness  make  men  bad? 

No,  it  is  impossible. 

True,  for  if  I  am  not  mistaken,  it  is  the  property,  not  of  warmth 
but  of  its  opposite,  to  make  things  cold. 

Yes. 

And  it  is  the  property  not  of  drought,  but  of  its  opposite,  to  make 
things  wet. 

Certainly. 

Then  it  is  the  property  not  of  good,  but  of  its  opposite,  to  hurt. 

Apparently  it  is. 

Well,  is  the  just  man  good? 

Certainly  he  is. 

Then,  Polemarchus,  it  is  the  property,  not  of  the  just  man,  but  of 
his  opposite,  the  unjust  man,  to  hurt  either  friend  or  any  other  creature. 

You  seem  to  me  to  be  perfectly  right,  Socrates. 

Hence  if  any  one  asserts  that  it  is  just  to  render  to  every  man  his 
due,  and  if  he  understands  by  this  that  what  is  due  on  the  part  of  the 
just  man  is  injurious  to  his  enemies,  and  assistance  to  his  friends,  the 
assertion  is  that  of  an  unwise  man.  For  the  doctrine  is  untrue;  be- 
cause we  have  discovered  that,  in  no  instance,  is  it  just  to  injure  any- 
body. 

I  grant  you  are  right.1 

While  the  Socratic  method  possesses  some  real  merit,  it 
nevertheless  has  a  decided  limitation  and  a  serious  danger. 
In  the  first  place,  the  limitation  of  its  content  to  the  replies 
of  the  student  restricts  its  applicability  to  only  a  few  fields 
of  study.  Its  data  are  merely  the  student's  own  experience, 
limited  at  best,  and  thus  rendering  the  method  almost  wholly 

1  The  selection  here  quoted  is  taken  from  Book  I  of  the  "Republic," 
by  Plato,  Davies  and  Vaughn's  translation. 


LESSON  DEVELOPMENT  121 

unsuited  to  such  studies  as  history,  foreign  languages,  and 
the  natural  sciences.  Its  danger,  moreover,  lies  in  its  ten- 
dency to  relapse  into  a  mere  intellectual  assenting  by  the 
student  to  certain  propositions  suggested  by  the  teacher, 
even  though  disguised  by  being  cast  in  the  form  of  grammati- 
cal questions.  The  teacher  imagines  that  he  is  asking, 
whereas  he  is  actually  telling  in  a  roundabout  way.  Unless 
skilfully  employed,  the  Socratic  method  neglects  the  stu- 
dent's activity  by  its  blind  leading  and  its  suggestive  ques- 
tioning. 

Heuristic  Method. — In  the  heuristic  method  the  plan  is  to 
induce  the  student  to  find  out  for  himself,  instead  of  telling 
him  the  answers  to  his  problems.  The  purpose  is  to  con- 
stantly shift  the  activity  from  teacher  to  student,  thus  creat- 
ing the  atmosphere  of  discovery.  The  leading  merit  of  this 
method  is  its  emphasis  on  the  activity  and  initiative  secured 
on  the  part  of  the  student,  and  is  thus  a  reaction  against  the 
too  common  fault  of  doing  for  the  student  what  the  student 
should  learn  to  do  for  himself.  Like  the  Socratic  method, 
the  heuristic  method  has  its  limitations  and  dangers.  No 
small  part  of  the  suitable  content  of  secondary  education  is 
of  such  a  character  that  he  cannot  discover  it  for  himself. 
Telling  a  boy  to  see  what  the  text-book  says  at  the  top  of  a 
specified  page  cannot  properly  be  called  "heuristic."  The 
true  discoverer  does  not  walk  hi  a  beaten  and  prescribed  path, 
but  must  in  some  measure  blaze  his  own  trail.  Too  much  of 
what  is  called  heuristic  is  quite  unworthy  of  the  name.  More- 
over, a  moment's  reflection  will  suffice  to  show  the  fallacy  of 
the  notion  that  the  high  school  student  is  in  the  heuristic 
method  putting  himself  in  the  place  of  the  original  discoverer. 
Professor  De  Garmo  points  out  three  bases  of  difference  be- 
tween the  two.  "In  determining  the  whereabouts  of  the 
student  in  the  domain  of  knowledge,  we  have  first  to  consider 
that  he  stands  at  the  frontiers  of  his  own  knowledge,  not  at 
those  of  the  race.  The  answers  to  his  problems  are  known, 
presumably  to  the  teacher,  at  any  rate  to  somebody;  whereas 


122  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

the  answers  to  the  problems  of  the  investigator  are  yet  to  be 
learned.  .  .  .  The  investigator,  with  a  mind  already  stored 
with  knowledge,  who  has  worked  for  months  and  even  years 
to  establish  a  set  of  causal  relations  or  to  demonstrate  a  law, 
has  no  difficulty  in  remembering  what  he  has  proved,  first, 
because  of  the  vividness  of  his  conceptions,  and,  second, 
because  of  their  limited  scope.  But  the  high  school  student, 
who  must  recapitulate  in  a  brief  time  at  least  an  epitome  of 
the  acquisitions  of  the  race,  finds  it  difficult  to  make  one 
small  head  carry  all  he  learns.  .  .  .  The  investigator  needs 
no  such  admonition,  for  he  gains  efficiency  through  his  re- 
search. The  student,  however,  is  confronted  with  a  double 
difficulty;  for,  on  the  one  hand,  his  researches  are  numerous 
and  quickly  made,  so  that  the  time  and  repetition  needed  for 
gaining  a  high  degree  of  efficiency  are  denied  him,  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  he  must  acquire  large  amounts  of  knowledge 
without  even  the  form  of  research."1  True,  this  mood  of  the 
student  may  most  profitably  be  that  of  the  investigator,  and 
the  lessons  of  self-reliance  and  initiative  to  be  learned  by 
heuristic  study  are  invaluable.  However,  it  is  an  abuse 
rather  than  a  use  of  the  heuristic  to  fail  to  give  the  student 
in  his  investigations  the  benefit  of  the  choice  of  methods 
which  the  original  investigator  has  worked  out  as  most  fruit- 
ful and  direct. 

Lecture  Method. — The  lecture  method  of  instruction  in 
the  high  school  has  never  been  in  good  repute.  Its  introduc- 
tion into  secondary  instruction  can  mainly  be  laid  at  the  door 
of  inexperienced  college-trained  teachers,  who,  thinking  of 
education  from  the  point  of  view  of  content  rather  than  of 
student,  naturally  employ  the  methods  they  last  saw  in  use 
in  their  own  college  experience.  The  lecture  method  is  weak- 
est where  the  heuristic  method  is  strong,  in  that  in  the  lecture 
the  student  is  almost  wholly  a  passive  recipient,  with  no 
activity  of  reconstruction  or  expressive  application.  So  much 
more  ground  can  be  covered  in  this  way  that  the  teacher  too 
1  De  Garmo,  "Principles  of  Secondary  Education,"  II,  pp.  67,  69,  74. 


LESSON  DEVELOPMENT  123 

often  imagines  he  is  making  great  headway,  whereas  for  want 
of  expression  he  is  making  but  little  impression,  and  ultimately 
he  blames  his  class  for  failure  to  work,  when  the  trouble  is 
that  he  gave  them  nothing  to  do.  Thus,  the  weakness  of  lec- 
turing to  high  school  students  is  essentially  the  weakness  of 
wrong  distribution  of  activity  between  teacher  and  class, 
which  we  considered  in  our  fourth  chapter. 

In  general  we  may  say  that  all  three  methods — the  Socratic, 
the  heuristic,  and  the  lecture — are  by  no  means  universally 
applicable  in  the  high  school.  Each,  however,  has  its  signifi- 
cance and  function.  As  a  means  of  stimulating  the  student 
to  reflect  upon  his  experiences,  the  Socratic  method  is  often 
serviceable.  In  leading  him  to  make  his  own  discoveries  and 
to  develop  initiative  in  thought,  the  heuristic  attitude  is 
essential.  In  giving  to  a  class  material  which  is  otherwise 
inaccessible,  or  the  search  for  which  would  be  a  poor  economy, 
a  limited  degree  of  lecturing  is  occasionally  of  real  service, 
subject  ever  to  the  condition  that  the  student  thinks  as  he 
is  being  lectured  to,  and  that  thought  is  given  immediate 
and  adequate  opportunity  for  expression. 

5.    THE  PLACE  OF  DEVELOPMENT  IN  THE  CLASS  EXERCISE 

Relation  to  Recitation. — In  our  treatment  of  the  propae- 
deutic function  of  the  recitation  element,  we  have  implicitly 
determined  the  place  of  the  development  activity.  As  the 
recitation  serves  to  render  fresh  in  consciousness  the  material 
for  the  starting-point  of  the  advance  work,  so  the  principle 
of  the  procedure  from  the  known  to  the  unknown  would 
imply  that  development  would  normally  follow  recitation. 
In  Herbartian  methodology,  inductive  development  would 
correspond  in  a  general  way  to  the  three  steps  of  presentation, 
comparison,  and  generalization.  However,  our  use  of  the 
term  is  broader  than  the  Herbartian,  since  it  covers  not 
merely  inductive  procedure  but  all  the  forms  of  problematic 
and  appreciation  instruction. 


124  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

The  requirement  that  development  shall  follow  recitation 
does  not  imply  that  all  of  the  recitation  shall  have  been  com- 
pleted before  the  development  can  begin,  though  such  is,  in 
some  studies  at  least,  the  more  natural  procedure.  What  is 
meant  is  that  recitation  is  to  be  the  first  step  in  a  sequence  in 
which  development  is  the  second.  It  may  be  that  only  a 
small  section  of  the  prepared  lesson  is  recited  upon,  and  then 
is  at  once  followed  by  the  development  of  the  new  material 
for  which  it  is  the  preparation.  This  in  turn  may  be  followed 
by  its  application  and  expression,  and  then  by  the  recitation 
upon  further  old  material,  or  its  application  and  expression 
may  be  postponed  until  further  recitation  and  development 
have  been  introduced.  In  not  a  few  cases,  the  recitation  and 
development  may  be  so  blended  as  to  be  almost  indistinguish- 
able. Some  of  the  best  teaching  the  author  ever  observed, 
more  especially  in  linguistic  and  literary  studies,  has  been  of 
this  latter  type.  It  is,  however,  subject  to  the  danger  of 
deteriorating  into  mere  recitation  with  commentary  by  the 
instructor,  and  with  but  little  training  in  the  logical  develop- 
ment of  thought. 

A  few  examples  will  perhaps  serve  to  show  more  clearly 
the  relationship  between  recitation  and  development.  In 
teaching  the  factoring  of  expressions  of  the  x4  +  x2y2  +  ;y4 
type,  the  recitation  would  naturally  be  upon  the  factoring  of 
such  expressions  as  x2  +  2xy  -f-  y2  —  z2,  which  presumably 
had  formed  the  basis  of  the  home  study  in  preparation  for 
the  day's  lesson.  The  axiom  that  "if  equals  be  added  to 
equals  the  sums  are  equal"  might  also  be  recalled.  Then, 
after  the  recitation,  including  board  work  and  the  clearing 
up  of  difficulties,  the  new  type  of  expression  is  presented  and 
the  activity  of  the  class  is  challenged  by  the  announcement 
that  its  factoring  involves  no  method  or  principle  which  is 
essentially  new.  The  development  of  the  solution  will  follow. 
In  this  case  the  two  steps  of  recitation  and  development  are 
distinct  and  successive. 


LESSON  DEVELOPMENT  125 

With  a  class  in  American  history,  the  lesson  prepared  for 
the  day  may  have  dealt  with  several  only  partially  related 
topics,  such  as  John  Brown's  raid,  the  first  election  of  Lincoln 
as  President,  the  beginning  of  the  secession  movement,  and 
the  firing  upon  Fort  Sumter.  These  would  naturally  form 
the  content  for  the  recitation  procedure.  Out  from  each  of 
these  in  order,  however,  the  related  topic  or  topics  next  to 
be  studied  might  profitably  be  developed  immediately,  before 
the  recitation  and  development  based  upon  the  succeeding 
topic  are  undertaken.  Thus,  the  recitation  upon  John 
Brown's  raid  might  be  followed  by  the  development  of  its 
effect  upon  Southern  sentiment  toward  the  abolition  move- 
ment in  the  North;  then  might  come  the  recitation  upon 
Lincoln's  election,  followed  by  the  development  of  its  effect 
upon  Southern  hopes  for  the  permanency  of  slavery  as  a 
national  institution,  and  so  on. 

In  the  study  of  a  literary  selection,  the  two  types  of  proce- 
dure might  be  even  more  intimately  interwoven.  Recitation 
upon  facts  and  impressions  derived  from  the  study  of  the 
selection  might  almost  constantly  be  expanded  by  further 
and  more  intensive  consideration,  or  by  an  attempt  to  secure 
the  appreciation  of  that  which  hitherto  had  been  studied 
primarily  for  content. 

Relation  to  Assignment. — The  lesson  development  has 
essentially  to  do  with  the  work  which  the  student  is  to  pre- 
pare for  the  following  class  exercise,  and  is  therefore  closely 
related  to  the  lesson  assignment.  Indeed,  the  development 
is  not  infrequently  known  as  the  lesson  assignment,  although 
strict  adherence  to  the  meaning  of  the  words  would  give  to 
the  latter  term*  a  far  narrower  denotation  than  to  the  former. 
Strictly  speaking,  the  assignment  refers  to  that  part  of  the 
instruction  hi  which  the  work  for  the  student  to  do  in  prep- 
aration for  the  next  day  is  formally  stated,  whereas  the 
development  is  an  instruction  process,  working  out  in  the 
class  exercise  the  general  principles  or  data  which  form  the 


126  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

starting-point  or  basis  for  the  pupil's  home  study.  The  func- 
tion of  the  lesson  assignment  as  a  part  of  the  lesson  will 
receive  fuller  treatment  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 

We  have  seen  that  the  development  instruction  may  take 
either  of  two  forms,  according  to  the  character  of  the  situa- 
tion from  which  the  thought  of  the  lesson  proceeds  and  the 
student's  response  to  it.  To  each  of  these  forms  of  develop- 
ment, the  problematic  mode  and  the  appreciation  mode,  we 
must  give  special  consideration,  in  the  two  chapters  which 
follow. 

6.     SUMMARY 

In  dealing  with  advance  work  in  instruction,  the  proce- 
dure consists  of  four  steps:  the  student's  knowledge  of  the 
new  situation,  its  appeal  to  him,  his  response  to  it,  and  his 
expression  and  application  of  that  response.  The  response 
may  be  of  either  the  intellectual  or  the  appreciation  type. 

Lesson  development  is  the  inducing  and  directing  of  that 
response,  and  involves  joint  activity  on  the  part  of  both 
class  and  instructor. 

Development  instruction  should  accord  wholly  or  in  part 
with  four  general  principles:  (i)  It  should  proceed  from  the 
known  to  the  unknown.  Analogy,  when  used  with  discrimi- 
nation, serves  in  such  procedure.  (2)  It  should  proceed  from 
the  simple  to  the  complex.  (3)  It  should  proceed  from  the 
concrete  through  the  abstract  to  the  concrete.  The  use  of 
illustration  is  a  form  of  such  procedure,  and  is  of  especial 
value  when  the  illustration  is  familiar,  accurate,  simple,  and 
significant.  (4)  The  class  must  participate  actively  hi  the 
development. 

The  Socratic,  heuristic,  and  lecture  methods  are  not 
sharply  distinct  from  each  other  and  even  less  from  the  devel- 
opment procedure.  The  essential  features  of  each  are  respec- 
tively the  provocation  of  student  thought  by  a  chain  of  ques- 
tioning, the  attitude  of  discovery  on  the  part  of  the  student, 


LESSON   DEVELOPMENT  127 

and  the  extended  oral  supplying  of  data  to  the  class  by  the 
instructor. 

The  place  of  development  in  the  class  exercise  is  naturally 
after  the  recitation  procedure,  although  often  interwoven 
with  it. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  The  term  "development"  is  by  some  writers  restricted  to  that 
form  of  instruction  wherein  the  teacher  by  skilful  questioning  merely 
brings  to  the  child's  consciousness  the  implications  of  what  he  already 
knows.     Wherein  is  the  term  used  more  inclusively  in  this  chapter? 

2.  Why  would  it  not  be  better  not  to  employ  development,  but 
instead  to  merely  direct  the  student  to  learn  the  lesson  out  of  the 
book  ?     Would  such  procedure  tend  to  increase  or  decrease  the  degree 
of  mechanical  memorizing  of  lessons? 

3.  "Proceed  from  the  known  to  the  unknown."     In  the  study  of 
the  conjugation  in  Latin  or  French,  how  might  this  principle  find  appli- 
cation ? 

4.  An  algebra  teacher,  developing  the  concept  of  positive  and 
negative  numbers,  likened  their  relation  to  that  of  a  balloon  carrying 
ballast;  also  to  a  children's  seesaw.     Discuss  the  pedagogic  merit  of 
each  analogy. 

5.  Many  text-books  are  arranged  to  introduce  each  new  topic 
with  a  formal  statement  of  the  principle  to  be  taught,  followed  by 
illustrations,    and    then    by    problems.     Criticise    this    arrangement. 
Examine  some  standard  text -books  for  examples  of  such  arrangement. 

6.  Is  there  danger  of  giving  too  many  illustrations  of  a  principle? 
How  many  illustrations  should  be  given? 

7.  In  developing  the  topics  of  glacial  erosion,  or  of  taxation  without 
representation,  or  of  the  use  of  conditional  clauses  in  some  foreign 
language,  what  illustrations  would  you  use  in  each  case? 

8.  Suggest  some  material  which  might  better  not  be  developed 
but  instead  left  for  the  student  to  master  independently. 

9.  Some  writers  advise  teachers  to  place  the  development  at  the 
beginning  of  the  class  hour,  and  to  follow  it  with  the  recitation  pro- 
cedure.    Discuss  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  so  doing. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READINGS 

Dewey,  "How  We  Think,"  chap.  I. 

Parker,  "Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools,"  chaps.  XII,  XVIII. 

Bagley,  "Educative  Process,"  chap.  XVII. 


128  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

Colvin,  "An  Introduction  to  High  School  Teaching,"  chap.  XII. 
Adams,  "Exposition  and  Illustration,"  especially  chaps.  VIII-XVI. 
De  Garmo,  "Principles  of  Secondary  Education,   Processes  of  I 

struction,"  chaps.  VIII,  XI. 
De  Garmo,  "Interest  and  Education,"  chap.  XI. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  PROBLEMATIC  MODE 
i.     CHARACTER  AND  FUNCTION 

Meaning  of  Problem. — In  the  preceding  chapter  we  ob- 
served that  in  the  development  of  new  material  there  are  in- 
volved the  three  elements  which  we  call  the  student's  knowl- 
edge of  the  situation,  its  appeal  to  him,  and  his  response  to  it. 
Although  there  is  necessarily  a  certain  degree  of  expression 
involved  in  these  three  steps,  and  especially  the  third,  the 
expression-application  as  a  distinct  procedure  specifically 
provided  for  may  best  be  treated  as  a  distinct  step  following 
from  the  development  rather  than  as  constituting  a  part  of 
it.  When  the  response  was  essentially  an  intellectual  one, 
involving  knowledge  or  thought  rather  than  feeling  as  its 
essential  feature,  the  mode  of  development  was  called  the 
problematic  mode.  This  must  not  be  taken  to  mean  that 
the  response  alone  is  the  problematic  mode;  rather,  the  whole 
procedure,  including  all  the  three  elements  of  development 
just  mentioned,  is  the  problematic  mode  of  development 
when  the  response  is  of  this  intellectual  character. 

The  word  "problem"  as  used  in  reference  to  instruction 
has  a  meaning  somewhat  broader  than  that  which  is  fre- 
quently attributed  to  it.  Whenever  the  student  feels  that  the 
situation  confronting  him  is  one  that  demands  his  thought 
and  study,  one  which  challenges  him  to  find  out  or  think  out 
something,  to  attain  to  a  knowledge  or  conclusion  not  yet 
attained  to,  that  situation  is  to  him  a  problematic  one.  With 
Professor  Dewey,  we  would  apply  the  term  to  "whatever — 
no  matter  how  slight  and  commonplace  in  character — per- 
plexes and  challenges  the  mind  so  that  it  makes  belief  uncer- 

129 


130  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

tain/'1  meaning  thereunder  to  include  any  situation  which 
impels  the  student  to  discover  more  facts  about  it,  or  to  think 
out  its  implications,  whether  as  generalization  or  as  concrete 
application.  "The  problem,"  says  Professor  De  Garmo,  "is 
well-nigh  universal  in  every  field  of  endeavor,  educational 
and  vocational,  for  whenever  the  adjustment  of  thought  to 
fact  or  of  fact  to  thought  is  involved,  there  the  problem  lies 
close  at  hand.  That  it  is  of  supreme  educational  importance 
in  the  sciences  cannot  be  doubted;  it  is  equally  serviceable  in 
the  humanities  whenever  the  student  should  be  incited  to 
think.  History  easily  resolves  itself  into  a  series  of  problems 
respecting  cause  and  effect.  Every  literary  masterpiece 
fairly  bristles  with  problems  psychological,  social,  ethical,  and 
linguistic.  Even  the  purely  aesthetic,  whose  appreciation  is 
usually  considered  to  rest  upon  contemplation  alone,  is  greatly 
aided  by  intellectual  comprehension,  which  always  permits 
the  problem  form."  2 

Repeatedly  the  reader  has  been  reminded  of  the  impor- 
tance of  student  activity;  that  the  student  must  be  in  the 
attitude  of  the  aggressive  seeker  after  knowledge  and  power, 
and  not  a  mere  passive  recipient.  In  the  problematic  mode, 
therefore,  the  first  condition  for  learning  must  be  the  problem 
attitude  on  the  part  of  the  student.  This  involves  an  open- 
mindedness  for  the  recognition  of  problems,  and  a  determina- 
tion to  solve  them.  To  too  many  people,  the  situations  of 
life  are  but  matter-of-fact  things,  to  be  gotten  on  with  in  the 
easiest  way.  To  the  student  these  must,  to  use  Professor  De 
Garmo's  expression,  fairly  bristle  with  problems  which  de- 
mand consideration.  The  boy  who  sees  in  the  compass  needle 
merely  a  toy  or  a  useful  instrument  will  learn  nothing  from 
the  compass.  Only  when  its  workings  set  him  to  thinking 
and  finding  out  will  the  compass  be  an  educative  agency  for 
him.  The  ability  to  develop  this  attitude  of  mind  on  the 

1  Dewey,  "How  We  Think,"  p.  9. 

1  De  Garmo,  "Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  Processes  of  Instruc- 
tion," II,  pp.  23-24. 


THE   PROBLEMATIC   MODE  13! 

part  of  his  class  is  vital  for  the  effectual  teacher,  and  for  the 
student  the  attitude  is  a  prophecy  of  success  within  and 
without  the  school. 

School  work  abounds  in  problems.  Thus,  the  history 
student  desiring  a  better  understanding  of  the  battle  of  Gettys- 
burg will  want  to  know  the  topography  of  the  battle-field, 
the  relative  strength  and  positions  of  the  opposing  armies, 
and  the  strategic  aims  of  the  commanding  generals.  These 
and  related  data  constitute  for  him  what  might  be  termed  a 
"finding-out"  problem.  Somewhat  different  is  the  case  of 
the  student  in  physics  who  from  his  study  of  the  appropriate 
apparatus  before  him  is  seeking  to  discover  a  general  law  for 
the  relation  between  the  length  of  pendulum  and  its  rate  of 
vibration.  Here  we  find  a  " thinking-out"  problem,  obvi- 
ously of  a  higher  intellectual  order  than  the  preceding,  and 
involving  the  logical  procedure  of  induction.  A  third  type 
of  problem  is  that  of  the  algebra  student  who,  knowing  that 
the  difference  of  the  squares  of  two  quantities  is  the  product 
of  the  sum  and  difference  of  the  quantities,  is  endeavoring  to 
factor  the  expression  a2  —  &  —  2bc  —  c2.  His  problem,  too, 
is  one  to  be  "thought-out,"  but  the  thinking  in  this  case  is 
deductive. 

Relation  of  the  Three  Types  of  Problem. — Problems  are 
thus  seen  to  be  of  the  three  types:  informational,  inductive, 
and  deductive.  The  first  concerns  itself  with  the  discovery 
of  concrete  data,  the  second  with  the  derivation  of  abstract 
principles  from  those  data,  and  the  third  with  the  application 
of  those  principles  to  further  concrete  situations.  Any  one 
of  the  three  may,  as  we  have  seen,  constitute  a  problem  for 
the  student.  All  three  of  them  form  a  series  of  thought  such 
as  we  observed  in  Chapter  VII,1  where  it  was  seen  that  the 
true  pedagogical  procedure  in  developmental  instruction  is 
from  the  concrete  through  the  abstract  and  back  again  to  the 
concrete.  Each  of  the  three  may  thus  be  itself  problematic 
and  at  the  same  time  propaedeutic  to  the  further  procedure  in 

'P.  1 10. 


132  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

the  thought  series  just  mentioned  or  in  further  series  proceed- 
ing from  it. 

2.    SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION 

First  in  order  of  sequence,  though  not  of  educational 
value,  is  that  type  of  problematic  procedure  which  we  have 
termed  the  informational  problem.  Whether  the  student  in- 
tends to  employ  that  information  as  the  basis  for  a  subse- 
quent induction  or  seeks  it  merely  to  gratify  a  desire  for 
knowledge  about  something  in  which  he  has  an  interest,  his 
" finding-out"  procedure  is  essentially  the  same. 

Telling,  Reading,  and  Discovery. — The  schoolboy  gets  his 
knowledge  of  the  world  in  three  ways:  somebody  tells  him, 
he  reads  it,  or  he  discovers  it  for  himself.  In  the  classroom 
these  three  sources  of  information  are  still  the  fundamental 
ones:  the  telling  by  the  teacher,  the  reading  of  the  text-book, 
and  the  observation  by  the  student.  The  two  first  named 
constitute  authority  in  instruction,  whereas  in  the  third  the 
student  goes  for  his  data  directly  to  the  originals,  in  so  far  as 
these  are  accessible  and  interpretable  for  him.  Of  these 
sources  of  information,  at  least  the  first  two  and  often  all 
three  are  available  in  teaching.  However,  each  has  its  merits 
and  its  limitations,  its  advantages  and  disadvantages,  to  be 
taken  into  account  in  determining  which  source  shall  be  em- 
ployed in  any  particular  instance. 

Telling  by  the  teacher  as  a  source  of  the  student's  infor- 
mation has  long  been  the  object  of  severe  criticism.  The 
chief  objection  raised,  and  one  not  without  justification,  is 
the  danger  that  it  will  resolve  itself  into  a  one-sided  activity, 
with  the  teacher  doing  all  the  work  and  the  class  remaining 
passive  and  inert.  The  danger  is  real  but  not  so  fundamental 
that  it  cannot  be  met.  True,  it  is  so  easy  for  the  teacher  to 
seemingly  impart  knowledge  by  telling  that  he  often  over- 
looks the  response  of  his  class.  However,  it  is  often  possible 
to  so  "tell"  students  that  they  are  constantly  active  and  on 
the  alert,  responding  in  thought  and  even  in  word  to  what 


THE  PROBLEMATIC  MODE  133 

the  teacher  is  relating.  "Telling"  when  such  an  atmosphere 
as  this  prevails  is  not  harmful,  and  may  be  employed  at 
times  to  excellent  advantage. 

Of  the  advantages  of  the  "telling"  procedure  in  instruc- 
tion, probably  the  most  significant  is  its  adaptability  to  the 
special  needs  of  the  situation.  The  teacher,  knowing  what 
he  intends  to  accomplish  by  the  lesson  in  hand,  is  able  to 
select  and  organize  his  data  for  the  best  realization  of  his 
specific  aim,  and  to  present  it  at  what  might  be  called  the 
"psychological  moment"  for  its  educational  effectiveness. 

A  second  advantage  and  one  that  plays  a  real  part  in  the 
deepening  of  impressions  made  lies  hi  the  vivacity  and  per- 
sonal responsiveness  which  may  characterize  such  presenta- 
tion. We  are  glad  to  spend  a  dollar  to  hear  a  lecture  deliv- 
ered, even  though  we  know  that  a  few  hours  later  we  could 
read  the  same  address  in  the  daily  newspaper  at  negligible 
expense.  So  the  teacher,  if  possessed  of  the  capacity  for 
"telling,"  can  thus  vitalize  matter  which  if  first  read  by  the 
student  would  be  dull  and  uninteresting.  We  might  advan- 
tageously adopt  the  practice  of  the  Germans  in  including 
in  teacher-training  the  development  of  power  to  "tell"  and 
even  the  untrained  teacher  can,  by  observation,  practice,  and 
sympathy  with  students,  increase  greatly  his  efficiency  in  this 
direction,  to  the  delight  of  both  himself  and  his  pupils. 

A  further  advantage  of  the  "telling"  procedure  lies  in 
economy  of  time.  Many  facts  are  not  easily  accessible  for 
the  student,  so  that  his  expenditure  of  time  and  effort  in 
finding  them  more  than  offsets  the  advantage  of  his  activity 
in  the  finding.  While  ever  mindful  of  the  danger  of  doing 
the  pupil's  work  for  him  and  of  mistaking  haste  for  progress, 
still  we  must  realize  that  any  procedure  which  can  effect  a 
real  economy  of  time  in  instruction  has  a  positive  pedagogical 
function. 

The  second  source  of  information  for  the  student  is  the 
text-book,  with  the  supplementary  books  of  reference.  The 
old  conception  of  the  class  exercise  as  a  place  for  reciting 


134  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

memorized  material  instead  of  for  learning  has  tended  toward 
the  banishment  of  the  text-book  from  the  classroom  for  all 
purposes  save  that  of  an  exercise  book.  Few  teachers  really 
know  how  to  use  the  text-book  in  the  class  exercise,  failing 
to  differentiate  between  its  use  and  its  abuse. 

As  a  source  of  information  in  instruction,  the  text-book 
has  three  real  advantages.  First,  it  represents,  or  is  supposed 
to  represent,  a  higher  quality  of  presentation  and  exposition 
than  that  of  which  the  average  teacher  is  capable,  so  that 
when  his  own  exposition  proves  inadequate  or  he  wishes  to 
follow  it  up  with  one  which  is  better  as  a  final  form,  recourse 
to  the  text-book  is  occasionally  of  real  service.  A  second 
advantage  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  material  of  the  text  is 
available  for  reference  for  the  student  when  in  his  study  he 
seeks  to  recall  the  material  developed  in  the  classroom.  What 
the  teacher  tells  is  told  but  once;  what  the  text-book  tells  is 
accessible  at  will.  The  third  advantage  is  derived  from  the 
appeal  to  the  visual  as  well  as  to  the  auditory.  What  one 
sees  on  the  printed  page  comes  into  consciousness  by  a  dif- 
ferent avenue  of  entrance,  the  eye  rather  than  the  ear,  thus 
deepening  the  impression,  especially  in  the  case  of  visually 
minded  students. 

The  information  material  thus  far  discussed  has  been 
that  based  upon  authority.  The  third  type,  that  derived 
from  the  student's  own  experience  and  observation,  has,  when 
available,  merits  which  give  it  first  place  in  order  of  educa- 
tional value.  When  the  observation  is  made  in  the  class 
exercise  or  laboratory,  and  is  therefore  purposive  and  directed, 
it  tends  to  develop  in  the  student  a  high  degree  of  self-reliance 
and  power  of  observation,  qualities  which  are  by  some  con- 
sidered the  most  valuable  products  of  education.  In  such 
case,  the  student  feels  the  interest  of  investigation,  which 
forms  the  basis  for  problematic  study.  And  whether  the 
observation  be  made  during  the  class  exercise  or  in  the  earlier 
experience  of  the  pupil,  its  concreteness  and  personal  element 
increase  greatly  the  depth  of  the  impression  made  by  the 
instruction  based  upon  it. 


THE   PROBLEMATIC   MODE  135 

Employment  of  the  Sources. — Simple  though  the  informa- 
tion procedure  may  appear,  a  few  suggestions  regarding  its 
employment  in  instruction  may  be  of  value. 

"Telling"  by  the  teacher  is  always  in  danger  of  deteriorat- 
ing into  a  one-sided  activity  with  the  students  almost  wholly 
passive,  often  uninterested,  and  the  instructor  reciting  pho- 
nograph-like a  series  of  facts  for  the  class  to  memorize. 
Skilful  "telling"  is  such  that  the  demand  is  created  before  it 
is  supplied;  the  class  want  to  know  before  they  are  told. 
Herein  lies  one  of  the  most  potent  forces  which  can  be  em- 
ployed in  the  arousal  of  student  interest  and  activity.  The 
class  should  be  induced  to  ask  questions,  the  answers  to  which 
involve  the  information  to  be  conveyed.  Thought  should 
stimulate  thought,  questions  should  stimulate  answers,  and 
answers  further  questions. 

In  harmony  with  the  above  are  Professor  Dewey's  three 
requirements  of  "telling"  in  instruction,  "(i)  The  commu- 
nication of  material  should  be  needed.  That  is  to  say,  it 
should  be  such  as  cannot  be  readily  attained  by  personal 
observation.  ...  (ii)  Material  should  be  supplied  by  way 
of  stimulus,  not  with  dogmatic  finality  and  rigidity.  When 
pupils  get  the  notion  that  any  field  of  study  has  been  defi- 
nitely surveyed,  that  knowledge  about  it  is  exhaustive  and 
final,  they  may  continue  docile  pupils,  but  they  cease  to  be 
students.  .  .  .  (iii)  The  material  furnished  by  way  of  in- 
formation should  be  relevant  to  a  question  that  is  vital  in 
the  student's  own  experience.  Instruction  on  subject  mat- 
ter that  does  not  fit  into  any  problem  already  stirring  in  the 
student's  own  experience,  or  that  is  not  presented  in  such  a 
way  as  to  arouse  a  problem,  is  worse  than  useless  for  intellec- 
tual purposes."1 

But  good  "  telling "  concerns  not  content  alone  but 
method.  Attention  must  be  given  not  merely  to  what  we 
tell  but  to  the  manner  and  form  of  the  telling.  The  teacher 
should  train  himself  in  narration,  description,  and  exposition. 
He  should  be  able  to  recount  an  event  or  paint  a  word-picture 
1  Dewey,  "How  We  Think,"  pp.  198-199. 


136  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

so  clearly  and  vividly  and  with  such  balance  of  accent  and 
feeling  that  the  class  really  see  the  original  through  his  eyes 
and  catch  the  spirit  of  his  observation  and  interpretation. 
For  this  he  will  need  a  certain  degree  of  vividness  of  imagina- 
tion and  sympathy  of  manner  which  are  the  product  not 
merely  of  native  ability  but,  to  no  small  degree,  of  training 
as  well.  Exposition,  dealing  more  with  logical  relationships, 
demands  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  content  and  its 
organization.  Clearness  of  thinking  is  a  prerequisite  of  clear- 
ness of  exposition,  and  much  of  the  weakness  of  exposition  in 
instruction  can  be  traced  back  to  the  fact  that  the  instructor 
did  not  know  exactly  what  he  wished  to  say  and  how  to  say 
it.  A  habit  of  careful  and  full  outlining  of  his  material  both 
in  his  preparation  and  in  his  instruction  will  usually  prove  of 
value  in  securing  clarity  of  exposition. 

When  shall  the  teacher  read  to  his  class,  rather  than 
"tell"?  In  view  of  the  greater  interest  and  vividness  of  the 
told  than  of  the  read,  it  is  evident  that  other  things  being 
equal,  telling  is  better  than  reading.  However,  we  have 
seen  that  reading  has  its  merits  as  well  as  its  demerits,  and 
that  one  of  the  former  is  the  possibility  of  better  form  of 
expression.  In  general,  unless  the  written  (or  printed)  form 
is  conspicuously  better  than  the  spoken  form  of  the  teacher's 
instruction,  or  the  form  of  expression  is  one  of  the  vital  con- 
siderations in  the  material,  it  is  better  to  tell  than  to  read. 
Not  infrequently,  however,  especially  in  literary  and  lin- 
guistic study,  the  form  is  an  essential  or  is  so  far  superior  to 
the  teacher's  telling  that  the  reading  is  helpful  and  justified. 

We  have  seen  that  one  advantage  of  the  text-book  as  a 
source  of  information  lies  in  its  availability  for  reference  in 
subsequent  study.  This  disadvantage  of  the  "telling"  pro- 
cedure can  in  some  measure  be  offset  by  requiring  students 
to  take  notes  upon  what  they  are  told.  Such  notes,  when  the 
student  has  been  shown  how  to  take  them  and  use  them, 
may  be  of  great  value  to  him  in  his  study  by  recalling  to  him 
both  the  content  and  the  organization  of  the  study  material 


THE  PROBLEMATIC  MODE  137 

as  developed  in  the  class  exercise.  Note-taking  has  the  fur- 
ther value  of  calling  the  class  to  activity;  not  merely  the 
physical  activity  of  writing,  which  for  high  school  students 
is  of  positive  service,  but  the  mental  activity  of  selecting, 
organizing,  and  formulating,  which  is  one  of  the  most  bene- 
ficial forms  of  intellectual  training.  "No  notes,"  says  Pro- 
fessor Chubb,  "are  to  be  made  for  the  sake  of  mere  recall, 
but  for  the  sake  of  the  powers  called  into  play  in  making 
them.  In  their  simplest  form,  they  should  involve  some 
selecting  and  organizing  of  data.  These  data  should  be 
organized  in  such  a  way  as  to  tell  their  story  by  their  appear- 
ance— clear  heading  and  subheadings,  and  well-articulated 
outlines.  .  .  .  We  must  not  overlook,  however,  the  value  of 
the  mere  writing  up  of  rough  notes  as  compelling  the  student 
to  recall  and  rethink  the  living  commentary  and  discussion 
of  the  class."1 

In  the  employment  of  the  third  source  of  information, 
the  pupil's  own  observation,  the  teacher  must  guard  himself 
against  misconceptions  regarding  the  meaning  of  student  dis- 
covery. As  we  saw  in  our  study  of  the  heuristic  method 
(Chapter  VII,  p.  121),  the  high  school  student  is  a  discoverer 
in  spirit  only,  rather  than  in  fact.  "Does  the  pupil  believe 
himself  to  be  discovering  the  truth?"  asks  Professor  Bagley. 
"This  is  the  essential  point.  As  long  as  he  is  confident  that 
he  is  discoverer,  the  essential  condition  of  the  development 
method  has  been  fulfilled.  In  other  words,  it  is  the  subjec- 
tive attitude  of  the  pupil  that  is  important  rather  than  the 
objective  process."2  In  the  strictest  sense  of  the  term,  then, 
the  high  school  student  is  rather  the  investigator  than  the 
discoverer,  and  the  teacher  must  not  expect  him  either  to  dis- 
cover in  the  same  way  that  the  original  discoverer  employed, 
or  independently  to  find  and  select  the  materials  wherewith 
to  proceed.  The  problem,  the  method,  and  the  instruments 
available  for  the  student  all  presuppose  procedure  with  a  con- 

1  Chubb,  "The  Teaching  of  English,"  pp.  280-281. 
*  Bagley,  "Educative  Process,"  p.  263. 


138  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

siderable  degree  of  knowledge,  of  selected  and  adapted  condi- 
tions, and  an  attempt  to  convert  the  high  school  pupil  into 
the  original  discoverer  is  an  unnecessarily  wasteful  procedure. 
Let  him  catch  the  spirit  of  investigation,  and  conduct  it  with 
the  best  aids  available.  When  the  bridge  has  once  been 
built,  it  is  thereafter  unnecessary  to  ford  the  stream. 

We  have  treated  the  three  sources  of  information  as 
though  they  were  distinct,  and  have  suggested  how  each  may 
be  employed.  However,  here  as  elsewhere  in  method,  the 
instructor  will  employ  any  and  all  of  the  sources  as  occasion 
may  demand.  Skill  in  teaching  consists  in  the  ability  not 
merely  to  choose  but  to  synthesize  methods.  So,  in  the 
same  lesson  there  may  be  resort  to  telling  by  the  teacher, 
reading  by  the  student,  and  reporting  of  observation  and 
experience  by  the  class,  the  whole  being  blended  in  a  synthe- 
sis of  elements  chosen  each  in  response  to  a  demand  for  which 
it  is  peculiarly  adapted. 

It  need  scarcely  be  pointed  out  that  the  learning  in  the 
finding-out  problem  is  based  upon  simple  association.  The 
situation  which  raises  the  problem  has  directly  and  simply 
associated  with  it  the  fact  or  idea  which  completes  it  as  the 
solution  of  the  problem.  And  however  valuable  the  infor- 
mation acquired  may  be,  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  the  range 
of  its  application  extends  only  over  that  comparatively  lim- 
ited field  in  which  the  facts  in  question  function.  Informa- 
tion is  far  more  narrow  in  its  usefulness  than  is  thought 
power,  and  the  teacher  must  be  on  his  guard  lest  he  give- 
undue  attention  to  mere  finding-out  problems  in  teaching. 
The  transfer  of  information,  like  the  transfer  of  training,  is 
possible  only  in  so  far  as  there  are  common  elements  between 
the  known  situation  and  the  new  one,  and  in  information  as 
compared  with  thought  power  the  number  of  such  elements 
is  but  small.  The  knowledge  of  the  English  equivalent  for 
tuba  or  of  the  method  of  bisecting  an  arc,  however  useful, 
has  far  less  range  of  application  than  the  power  to  observe 
or  to  reason. 


THE   PROBLEMATIC   MODE  139 


3.    COMPOSITION  OF  AN  ACT  OF  THOUGHT 

The  Steps  in  Thinking. — The  problematic  procedure  with 
which  we  have  just  dealt  is  that  in  which  the  pupil  acquires 
information,  either  by  hearing  it,  reading  it,  or  observing. 
It  is  essentially  a  problem  of  knowing.  On  a  higher  intellec- 
tual plane,  and  involving  a  far  more  difficult  task,  is  the  prob- 
lem which  involves  thinking  out.  It  may  be  the  derivation 
of  a  general  principle  from  given  concrete  data,  or  it  may  be 
application  of  a  general  principle  in  the  solution  of  a  particu- 
lar situation.  In  logical  terms,  the  problem  may  be  either 
inductive  or  deductive,  or  indeed  may  involve  both  logical 
processes. 

In  all  problematic  procedure,  a  complete  act  of  thought 
involves  four  fairly  distinct  steps.  These  are,  first,  the  recog- 
nition and  formulation  of  the  problem;1  second,  a  tentative 
solution  or  hypothesis;  third,  reasoning  out  the  implications 
of  the  solution,  and,  fourth,  the  verification. 

Stated  in  terms  of  the  principle  of  association,  we  find 
that  the  problematic  learning  of  the  thought  type  involves  a 
complex  system  of  both  association  and  dissociation,  of  analy- 
sis and  synthesis.  In  the  first  of  the  four  steps,  the  student 
encounters  the  situation  as  a  unity,  and  proceeds  to  analyze 
out  its  problematic  elements.  In  the  formulation  of  the 
hypothesis,  he  associates  tentatively  these  problematic  ele- 
ments with  others.  The  next  step,  the  reasoning  out  of  the 
implications,  is  essentially  an  analytic  one,  in  which  the  syn- 
thesis thus  formed  is  subjected  to  a  further  analysis.  In  the 
verification,  the  synthesis  of  the  second  step  is  reformed  with 
new  subordinate  elements  included. 

Thus,  the  questions  the  student  asks  are  these:  i.  What 
is  the  problematic  feature  of  this  situation,  and  what  is  there 
problematic  about  it?  2.  What  combination  of  this  prob- 

1  This  step  Dewey  treats  as  two,  which  he  calls  a  felt  difficulty  and  its 
location  and  definition.  Cf.  Dewey,  "How  We  Think,"  p.  72. 


140  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

lematic  feature  with  known  data  seems  to  satisfy?  3.  What 
features  are  involved  in  this  combination  which  might  affect 
its  validity?  4.  With  these  newly  considered  features  in- 
volved, can  the  old  combination  be  satisfactorily  reformed? 
As  thus  stated,  the  analysis-synthesis-analysis-synthesis  move- 
ment of  thought  is  isolated  and  rendered  more  evident  for 
our  study. 

The  chemistry  student,  directing  the  hydrogen  flame 
against  a  porcelain  dish,  sees  the  metallic  mirror  surface 
formed  upon  the  dish.  The  problem  occurs  to  him:  "How 
can  this  happen?  What  is  the  cause  of  the  phenomenon?" 
The  tentative  solution  suggests  itself:  "Possibly  the  zinc  used 
in  the  hydrogen  generator  contains  arsenic,  and  the  mirror 
surface  is  a  deposit  of  arsenic."  He  proceeds  to  reason  out 
the  implications  of  this  hypothesis,  recalling  that  not  only 
arsenic  but  antimony  as  well  would  deposit  such  a  mirror, 
but  that  commercial  zinc  more  often  contains  arsenic  than 
antimony.  Finally  he  verifies  the  arsenic  hypothesis  by  dis- 
solving the  metal  in  acid  and  treating  it  with  hydrogen  sulfid, 
and  thus  identifies  it  as  arsenic  by  the  color  of  the  precipitate. 

Literature  offers  its  problems  as  well.  In  the  reading  of 
"Macbeth,"  the  student  raises  the  question  whether  Macbeth's 
hesitancy  about  killing  Duncan  is  due  to  moral  considera- 
tions or  personal  cowardice.  He  forms  the  hypothesis  that 
it  is  due  to  cowardice  alone.  Reflection  suggests  to  him  that 
in  such  case  the  hesitancy  would  cease  when  Macbeth  is 
shown  that  the  act  can  be  committed  without  danger  of 
detection.  However,  an  attempt  at  verification  shows  the 
inadequacy  of  the  hypothesis,  since  Macbeth  still  hesitates 
despite  this  assurance.  The  student  is  thus  compelled  to 
revise  his  hypothesis,  and  to  attribute  Macbeth's  conduct  to 
a  combination  of  both  the  motives  mentioned.  Reflection 
upon  this  new  hypothesis  suggests  implications  which  both 
word  and  deed  of  Macbeth  seem  to  justify,  and  this  hypothe- 
sis, thus  verified,  is  accepted  by  the  student  as  the  solution 
of  the  problem. 


THE  PROBLEMATIC  MODE  141 

In  the  study  of  history,  the  student  often  encounters  a 
problem  in  which  he  is  led  to  form  an  anticipatory  judgment 
of  the  outcome  before  that  outcome  itself  has  been  encoun- 
tered. In  the  interpretation  of  a  certain  legislative  action, 
he  forms  a  hypothesis  as  to  the  economic  disturbances  that 
will  follow.  Finally,  the  further  reading  of  the  reference 
provides  the  basis  for  the  verification  of  his  anticipatory 
hypothesis. 

A  problem  from  the  study  of  Latin  may  suffice  for  further 
illustration.  "Patriam  cum  severitate  regam."  The  begin- 
ning student  is  confronted  by  the  problem  whether  "cum" 
is  here  used  as  a  preposition  or  as  a  conjunction.  The  fact 
that  it  is  followed  by  an  ablative  suggests  the  hypothesis  that 
the  former  is  the  case.  Consideration  of  the  implication 
shows  that  according  to  the  hypothesis  there  could  be  but 
one  verb  in  the  sentence,  whereas  the  use  of  "cum"  as  a  con- 
junction would  involve  two  verbs.  The  hypothesis  is  veri- 
fied by  observation  that  but  one  verb  is  to  be  found  in  the 
sentence,  and  is  further  supported  by  the  fact  that  that  verb 
makes  better  sense  as  a  future  indicative  than  as  a  present 
subjunctive. 

The  studies  of  the  high  school  curriculum  abound  in 
problems  such  as  these,  though  of  widely  differing  degrees  of 
complexity.  Sometimes  the  hypothesis  may  take  days  in 
the  formulation  and  weeks  in  the  verification.  Again,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  Latin  illustration,  it  may  occupy  but  a  few 
minutes,  and  may  be  so  simple  that  the  student  is  unconscious 
of  the  fact  that  he  has  even  formed  an  hypothesis.  The  dif- 
ference, however,  is  rather  one  of  degree  than  of  kind,  for  the 
logical  procedure  in  a  complete  act  of  thought  is  always  es- 
sentially the  same. 

Induction  and  Deduction. — Books  upon  method  have  said 
much,  possibly  too  much,  on  the  subjects  of  induction  and 
deduction  in  instruction.  Teachers  have  been  led  to  believe 
that  in  practice  as  well  as  in  theory  the  two  processes  are  to 
be  sharply  differentiated.  Some  have  even  gone  so  far  as 


142  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

to  treat  them  as  two  alternative  methods  of  teaching  any 
particular  fact,  and  have  declared  that  the  inductive  is  the 
better  and  the  one  always  to  be  selected.  While  not  wholly 
false,  such  a  doctrine  is  misleading  to  the  teacher,  and  is 
based  on  an  inadequate  conception  of  the  learning  process. 
While  the  logician  differentiates  between  inductive  and  deduc- 
tive reasoning  for  the  purposes  of  his  science,  the  student  is 
constantly  employing  both,  often  inseparably,  in  the  act  of 
learning.  Moreover,  whether  the  learning  is  predominantly 
induction  or  deduction  is  determined  by  the  character  of  the 
problem,  whether  the  discovery  of  a  general  principle  or  the 
employment  of  a  general  principle  or  principles  in  the  solu- 
tion of  a  particular  problematic  situation. 

Any  step  in  the  circle  of  thought  is  a  problem  in  so  far  as 
it  "perplexes  and  challenges  the  mind  so  that  it  makes  belief 
at  all  uncertain."  1  If  the  solution  is  more  general  than  the 
data  from  which  it  arises,  it  is  an  inductive  procedure.  If  it 
involves  the  application  of  general  principles  to  cases  which 
are  less  general,  it  is  deductive.  An  entire  act  of  thought 
may  be  predominantly  either  inductive  or  deductive  on  this 
same  principle,  though  both  types  of  thinking  may  be  in- 
volved in  either.  Thus,  the  derivation  of  the  law  of  falling 
bodies  is  an  inductive  problem,  although  some  of  the  thinking 
involved  is  deductive.  The  proof  that  the  diagonals  of  a 
parallelogram  bisect  each  other  is  deductive  reasoning,  al- 
though there  is  somewhat  of  induction  in  the  demonstration. 

4.    PROCEDURE  IN  THE  THOUGHT  TYPE  OF  THE  PROBLEMATIC 

MODE 

We  have  seen  that  learning  involves  the  three  method  fac- 
tors of  acquisition,  reflection,  and  application  or  expression, 
and  can  scarcely  have  failed  to  catch  the  inference  that  the 
first  and  second  of  these,  the  acquisition  and  the  reflection, 
correspond  to  the  informational  and  the  thought  types  of 

1  Cf.  p.  129. 


THE  PROBLEMATIC  MODE  143 

problematic  procedure,  as  treated  in  the  second  and  third 
sections  of  the  present  chapter.  With  the  application  and 
expression  we  will  deal  in  a  subsequent  chapter.  The  re- 
quirements of  the  informational  problem  have  already  been 
considered  at  sufficient  length.  Partly  because  of  its  fre- 
quent use,  partly  because  of  its  complexity,  the  reflective  or 
thought  problem  is  of  special  importance  to  the  teacher  in 
dealing  with  each  of  the  four  steps  of  thought1  and  demands 
a  large  share  of  consideration  at  his  hands. 

i.  The  Recognition  and  Formulation  of  the  Problem. 
Definiteness  of  Problem. — A  first  essential  of  the  problem  is 
that  it  be  definite.  Not  merely  the  teacher  but  the  student 
as  well  must  know  definitely  just  what  the  problem  is  which 
confronts  him.  Doubtless  if  there  is  one  difficulty  which 
more  than  others  hinders  students  in  the  solution  of  prob- 
lems, it  is  the  failure  to  catch  their  meaning  and  implications. 
What  was  said  earlier  regarding  the  clarity  of  questions  holds 
with  equal  force  of  problematic  instruction,  for  although  the 
responsibility  for  the  deficiency  may  be  differently  placed, 
the  defects  in  the  solution  are  similar  in  character.  Students 
are  prone  to  undertake  the  answer  of  a  question  or  problem 
before  they  really  catch  the  force  and  significance  of  what  is 
asked.  Not  merely  does  the  practice  of  permitting  this 
indefiniteness  of  problem  thwart  the  accuracy  of  results,  but 
it  establishes  in  the  student  the  unfortunate  habit  of  engag- 
ing in  undertakings  hastily  and  without  due  consideration  of 
what  they  are  doing,  a  habit  fatal  not  alone  to  scientific 
accuracy  but  to  efficiency  in  all  of  life's  activities.  The  stu- 
dent should  early  be  led  to  realize  that  a  start  in  the  wrong 
direction  merely  adds  to  the  distance  to  be  travelled,  and  is 
thus  worse  than  no  start  at  all. 

One  of  the  forms  of  such  indefiniteness  of  problem  is  the 
failure  to  differentiate  between  inductive  and  deductive  prob- 
lems of  instruction.  The  distinction  is  one  which  constantly 
confronts  the  high  school  teacher,  and  unfamiliarity  with 

1  Cf.  p.  139. 


144  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

which  is  a  not  infrequent  source  of  inaccurate,  unscientific 
instruction. 

The  inductive  problems  of  the  high  school  curriculum  are 
usually  of  two  types,  either  the  formation  of  a  class  for  pur- 
poses of  classification,  or  the  discovery  of  a  causal  relation- 
ship.1 The  former  type,  which  is  based  upon  similarity, 
might  be  illustrated  by  the  classification  of  prepositions 
according  to  the  case  which  they  govern  or  of  rocks  accord- 
ing to  their  crystalline  structure.  The  second  type,  based 
upon  a  relationship  of  causality,  would  include  such  cases  as 
that  of  the  discovery  of  the  dependence  of  vibration  rate  of 
pendulum  upon  length  of  pendulum.  Both  types  lead  to  the 
establishment  of  a  class  or  principle  which  can  be  employed 
in  the  classification  or  explanation2  of  a  group  of  other  indi- 
vidual cases  not  considered  specifically  in  the  course  of  the 
induction. 

The  deductive  problems  are  of  various  types,  yet  are  all 
characterized  by  one  distinguishing  feature,  viz.:  the  expla- 
nation of  a  given  particular  situation  by  means  of  the  appli- 
cation of  general  principles  already  established.  In  algebra, 
the  factoring  of  x3  —  y3  —  -^fz  —  ^yzz  —  z3  involves  the 
problem  of  showing  that  it  is  the  difference  of  two  cubes,  and 
that  its  factors  are  such  as  follow  naturally  from  such  a  situ- 
ation. The  problem  of  the  explanation  of  the  electric  tele- 
graph is  solved  by  showing  that  it  is  but  an  application  of 
certain  laws  of  electrical  action.  The  demonstration  of  a 
geometrical  proposition  consists  in  pointing  out  that  the 
conclusion  is  merely  an  implication  of  principles  already  well 
established.  The  interpretation  of  the  manoeuvres  of  Lee's 
army  at  Gettysburg  is  possible  only  when  they  are  seen  to 
have  been  involved  in  the  general  plan  of  a  Northern  inva- 
sion. Stimulating  a  civics  class  to  anticipate  the  effects  of 

1  De  Garmo,  "Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  Processes  of  Instruc- 
tion," p.  77. 

2  The  student  of  logic  is  already  familiar  with  the  fact  that  explana- 
tion is  but  a  form  of  classification. 


THE   PROBLEMATIC   MODE  145 

the  direct  election  of  United  States  senators  is  an  appeal  to 
deductive  application  of  general  civic  principles  to  an  imagined 
situation. 

The  pedagogical  importance  of  the  distinction  between 
induction  and  deduction,  although  commonly  much  overesti- 
mated, is  nevertheless  real.  Both  teacher  and  pupil  should 
know  definitely  just  what  they  are  seeking  in  any  problematic 
procedure  in  order  that  means  may  be  adapted  to  end  and 
that  it  may  be  known  with  assurance  when  the  problem  has 
been  accurately  solved.  The  student  may  not  even  know 
the  meaning  of  the  terms  induction  and  deduction,  but  he 
should  know  definitely  whether  he  is  seeking  a  general  prin- 
ciple or  the  explanation  of  a  particular  problematic  situation. 
In  an  earlier  chapter  we  saw  how  prone  the  student  is  to  stop 
with  the  concrete  illustration  instead  of  going  on  to  the 
abstract  principle  which  it  illustrates.  This  is  evidently  but 
another  way  of  saying  he  does  not  realize  that  he  is  seeking  a 
generalization  rather  than  a  particular  fact,  or,  in  other 
words,  he  is  not  aware  of  the  inductive  character  of  his  prob- 
lem. On  the  other  hand,  the  student  is  often  satisfied  with 
an  inadequate  explanation  or  demonstration  because  he  fails 
to  realize  that  the  case  involved  in  the  problem  is  really  a 
concrete  application  of  the  principles  from  which  it  is  derived. 

If  to  the  student,  much  more  to  the  teacher  is  it  essential 
that  the  type  of  problem  be  adequately  understood,  since  the 
teacher  is  to  be  the  stimulator  of  the  problem  and  the  guide 
in  the  quest  for  its  solution.  The  errors  into  which  he  is  in 
danger  of  falling  are  the  same  as  those  which  we  have  men- 
tioned as  threatening  the  student,  but  because  he  is  the 
leader,  with  nobody  to  correct  his  mistakes,  the  harm  occa- 
sioned by  his  mistakes  is  far  the  more  serious. 

Because  of  his  limited  knowledge  of  the  subject  matter 
and  its  implications,  the  student  may  easily  suppose  he  un- 
derstands his  problem  when  he  does  not.  How  often  when 
asked,  "Do  you  know  just  what  it  is  that  you  are  seeking?" 
he  will  with  perfect  conscientiousness  reply  in  the  affirma- 


146  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

tive,  when  the  outcome  of  his  subsequent  efforts  shows  that 
he  was  mistaken.  The  teacher  should  not  take  the  student's 
word  for  it,  but  may  wisely  require  him  to  definitely  formu- 
late the  problem,  not  merely  as  an  evidence  of  its  comprehen- 
sion but,  still  more,  for  the  sake  of  the  definiteness  of  thought 
which  such  formulation  produces.  In  the  study  of  mathe- 
matics and  to  a  considerable  degree  in  the  physical  sciences, 
the  importance  of  an  exact  formulation  of  problems  by  the 
student  has  become  generally  recognized,  due  in  part  to  the 
fact  that  in  the  exact  sciences  problem  formulation  is  more 
definite  and  simple,  in  part  to  the  greater  prominence  of  the 
problematic  element  in  them.  To  this,  the  explicitness  with 
which  the  algebra  student  outlines  his  problem  before  its 
solution  and  the  completeness  and  definiteness  of  the  lab- 
oratory instructions  in  physics  bear  witness.  In  the  humani- 
ties the  problematic  element  is  less  obvious  and  more  often 
overlooked.  Too  frequently  the  student  of  history  thinks  of 
the  events  leading  to  the  Revolution  rather  as  memory  con- 
tent than  as  problematic,  so  that  no  formulation  of  the  prob- 
lem which  he  should  be  seeking  to  solve  is  even  thought  of. 
The  same  could  be  said  of  the  treatment  of  the  conjugation  in 
the  Spanish  class,  the  choice  of  the  President's  cabinet  in 
civics,  and  even  of  the  motive  of  Brutus  in  "Julius  Caesar"  in 
the  study  of  literature.  Possibly  the  adequate  oral  reading 
of  a  literary  selection,  in  contrast  to  the  slipshod  reading  so 
often  heard  in  high  school  classes,  might  be  considered  an 
instance  of  such  formulation.  If  in  the  humanities,  as  well 
as  in  the  sciences,  the  student  is  led  to  a  definite  formulation 
of  the  problem  involved,  he  will  discover  far  more  meaning 
and  profit  than  is  usually  the  case.  Yet  even  in  mathematics 
and  the  sciences  incomplete  and  inaccurate  statements  of  the 
problem  are  too  often  permitted,  at  the  sacrifice  of  much  of 
the  exactness  of  thought  and  expression  for  which  those 
studies  are  justly  valued. 

Realness  of  Problem. — The  second  essential  of  the  prob- 
lem is  that  it  shall  be  a  real  one  for  the  student.     Just  as  the 


THE  PROBLEMATIC  MODE  147 

question  must  be  adapted  to  the  student,1  so  the  problem 
must  be  one  that  arises  out  of  his  own  experience.  A  prob- 
lem is  not  an  unreal,  made-to-order  task  set  for  the  student 
as  a  form  of  mental  gymnastics,  but  arises  out  of  a  larger 
whole  or  situation  which  confronts  him  and  the  challenge  of 
whose  problem  impels  him  to  an  active  search  for  solution. 
Without  the  real  situation  as  a  background  there  can  be  no 
real  problem  as  foreground.  Counting  the  number  of  occur- 
rences of  a  peculiar  idiom  in  one  of  Cicero's  orations  may 
have  a  considerable  degree  of  reality  for  the  classical  philolo- 
gist, but  possesses  none  for  the  schoolboy,  because  there  is 
nothing  in  his  experience  upon  which  it  bears.  Problems 
without  number  could  be  devised,  but  nobody  ever  solves 
them  until  they  are  found  to  bear  on  already  conscious  inter- 
ests, and  the  principle  holds  good  with  individual  school 
children  as  with  the  race.  The  situation  out  of  which  arises 
for  the  Latin  student  the  problem  of  the  third  conjugation  is 
principally  his  previous  experience  with  the  first  and  second 
conjugations.  That  for  the  first  conjugation  is  his  knowl- 
edge of  the  English  conjugation.  In  the  study  of  stream 
erosion  it  is  his  observation,  past  or  present,  of  the  phenomena 
of  the  stream  he  knows.  To  the  girl  in  domestic  art,  the 
problem  of  harmony  in  room  furnishings  may  well  arise  out 
of  the  question  "What  kind  of  rug  would  be  appropriate  for 
this  dining-room?"  In  the  same  way,  each  lesson  is  an  exer- 
cise the  occasion  for  which  has  arisen  from  the  lessons  which 
had  preceded  it,  either  immediately  or  more  remotely,  thus 
securing  continuity  as  well  as  incentive. 

Thus  a  problem  should  appeal  to  the  student  as  practical, 
and  bearing  upon  the  affairs  of  his  active  interests.  In  a 
recent  experiment,  a  zoology  class  was  taught  in  two  sections, 
of  equal  ability  and  with  the  same  instructor,  the  sole  differ- 
ence being  that  in  the  one  section  the  material  was  treated 
in  the  usual  way,  in  the  other  the  economic  aspects  were 
prominently  emphasized.  Although  the  final  examination  of 

1  Cf.  p.  63. 


148  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

both  was  based  upon  the  work  of  the  section  first  mentioned, 
the  students  of  the  second  section  showed  in  the  examination 
far  the  better  knowledge  of  the  subject.  The  explanation  is 
simple,  viz. :  a  greater  degree  of  reality  in  the  problems  when 
given  an  economic  application  led  to  better  interest  and  com- 
prehension. In  similar  manner,  such  studies  as  physics, 
Spanish,  and  trigonometry  can  be  made  to  have  a  special  ap- 
peal by  emphasizing  their  value  in  manipulating  electrical 
machines,  in  conversing  with  Mexicans,  and  in  land  survey- 
ing respectively. 

Applications  such  as  the  above  readily  appeal  to  the 
typical  high  school  student.  But  it  must  not  be  supposed 
that  he  identifies  economic  with  practical  value.  He  likes 
to  think  quite  as  much  as  he  likes  to  earn  money,  provided 
the  problem  be  well  chosen  and  rightly  treated.  In  the 
words  of  Professor  De  Garmo:  "As  soon  as  the  school  work 
assumes  the  form  of  problems  to  be  solved  by  the  self-activity 
of  the  pupils,  we  have  at  once  a  concrete  application  of  the 
doctrine  of  interest,  provided,  of  course,  that  we  can  make 
the  end  seem  to  the  pupil  worth  striving  for,  and  can  render 
it  natural  for  the  interest  to  cling  to  the  steps  of  the  solution 
as  well  as  to  the  attainment  of  the  end.  But  it  is  to  this 
form  of  work  that  children  most  readily  respond."1  Prob- 
lems may  thus  be  intellectually  real,  of  interest  not  because 
of  economic  value  or  of  service  in  facilitating  the  doing  of 
things,  but  quite  as  much  because  of  the  intellectual  activity 
involved  in  its  solution,  or  of  the  knowledge  to  which  it  leads. 
Thus  appeal  is  made  not  merely  to  the  interest  of  expression 
but  of  curiosity  and  of  mental  activity  as  well.  Problems  of 
this  type  abound  and  often  predominate  in  practically  all 
fields  of  high  school  study,  although  if  they  do  not  eventually 
lead  to  some  form  of  direct  application  the  zest  of  intellectual 
effort  will  be  dissipated,  and  the  student  will  justly  declare 
the  work  impractical. 

A  recognition  of  the  importance  of  the  realness  of  prob- 
1  De  Garmo,  "  Interest  and  Education,"  p.  206. 


THE  PROBLEMATIC  MODE  149 

lems  has  in  the  past  few  years  manifested  itself  in  several 
suggestive  movements.  A  few  years  ago  some  teachers  of 
mathematics  undertook  to  formulate  a  larger  number  of 
"real  problems"  in  algebra.1  Such  problems  were  contrib- 
uted by  teachers  all  over  the  country,  and  a  strong  impulse 
was  given  the  movement  toward  the  real.  However,  in  too 
many  cases  the  teachers  lost  sight  of  the  principle  stated  in 
the  preceding  paragraph,  and  mistook  "real"  to  mean  "de- 
rived from  the  student's  out-of-school  activities."  The  sug- 
gested problems  dealt  with  automobiles  and  race-tracks  and 
similar  interests,  but  overlooked  the  fact  that  the  real  inter- 
est of  the  problem  lies  not  in  the  construction  of  an  imaginary 
race-track,  of  itself  interesting  to  but  a  small  minority  of  girls 
and  boys,  but  in  the  intellectual  activity  represented  in  the 
solution  of  the  problem. 

The  Project  Method. — Another  phase  of  the  same  move- 
ment is  what  is  known  as  the  "project  method"  of  teaching, 
especially  in  the  natural  sciences.  The  idea  seems  to  have 
had  its  origin  hi  the  sphere  of  vocational  education,  and  to 
have  been  taken  up  by  advocates  of  general  science.  To  both 
types  of  study  it  is  peculiarly  adapted.  The  plan  is  to  aban- 
don the  traditional  organization  of  subject  matter,  but,  let- 
ting the  problem  arise  out  of  the  everyday  experience  of  the 
children,  to  discover  in  the  course  of  the  solution  of  the  prob- 
lem the  principles  upon  which  it  is  based.  In  the  organiza- 
tion of  content  into  teaching  units,  we  are  told,  the  traditional 
tendency  has  been  to  follow  not  pedagogic  but  logical  princi- 
ples. The  new  movement  tells  us  that  if  the  boundary-line 
between  algebra  and  geometry  or  between  linguistic  and  lit- 
erary study  does  not  represent  the  natural  line  of  cleavage 
in  the  child's  thought  and  experience,  we  must  remove  the 
old  landmarks  and  run  out  new  lines.  "Organization  of 
subject  matter,"  we  are  told,  "must  be  made  around  the 
knowledge  of  the  pupil,  not  around  that  of  the  teacher  or 

1  School  Science  and  Mathematics,  March,  1909,  p.  307,  and  several  suc- 
ceeding issues. 


150  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

syllabus  maker."  l  Thus,  one  might  start  his  study  of  chem- 
istry directly  from  the  problem  of  the  burning  of  the  candle, 
and  the  solution  of  that  problem  would  lead  the  student  into 
the  discovery  of  the  great  group  of  chemical  facts  and  princi- 
ples involved.  Further  "projects"  would  be  the  investiga- 
tion of  the  wireless  telegraph,  the  construction  of  a  book- 
case, or  the  combating  of  an  insect  pest. 

The  arguments  usually  advanced  in  favor  of  the  project 
method  are  these:  In  the  first  place,  each  problem  possesses 
unity  because  of  its  clearly  defined  aim  in  the  student's  mind. 
Second,  its  problems  are  real  problems  to  the  pupil,  and  con- 
sequently their  solution  has  a  positive  and  appreciable  value 
to  him.  The  third  and  distinguishing  feature  of  the  method 
lies  in  the  fact  that  the  pupil  utilizes  already  acquired  knowl- 
edge and  skill,  and  attains  to  new  knowledge  in  the  fulfilment 
of  the  project.2  Finally,  the  method  of  study  is  almost 
exactly  that  whereby  problems  of  extra-scholastic  life  are  met 
and  solved,  so  that  both  the  training  in  method  of  procedure 
and  the  disposition  to  use  school-acquired  training  function 
after  the  completion  of  the  school  course. 

But  the  path  for  the  advocate  of  the  project  method  is 
not  free  from  obstacles.  In  the  employment  of  the  method, 
especially  in  the  laboratory,  the  teacher  often  meets  the  practi- 
cal problem  of  administering  the  work  with  perhaps  twenty 
or  thirty  students  each  working  out  a  problem  of  his  own  sug- 
gestion. At  the  same  time,  the  working  out  of  many  proj- 
ects involves  drawing  upon  a  great  variety  of  fielde  and  of 
sources  of  material,  many  of  which  are  not  available  even  in 
the  best-equipped  schools.  These  are  difficulties  of  admin- 
istration, which  the  advocates  of  the  method  believe  can  be 
met.  More  fundamental  are  the  objections  to  the  principles 
involved,  as  offered  especially  by  teachers  of  biology.  They 

1  Woodhull,  "Science  Teaching  by  Projects,"  in  School  Science  and 
Mathematics,  vol.  XV,  p.  229. 

*Sneddon,  "The  'Project'  as  a  Teaching  Unit,"  in  School  and  Society, 
vol.  IV,  p.  421. 


THE   PROBLEMATIC   MODE 

tell  us  in  the  first  place  that  the  project  method  is  unsys- 
tematic in  its  organization,  losing  sight  of  perspective  and  of 
relationships  between  various  parts  of  the  science.1  Further, 
we  are  told  that  the  method  fails  to  give  students  a  compre- 
hensive and  well-organized  training  in  fundamental  princi- 
ples. 

The  entire  project  movement  is  as  yet  in  its  infancy,  and 
like  infant  movements  is  far  from  definite.  The  term  "proj- 
ect" is  variously  used  by  different  writers,  even  though  the 
basal  principle  is  clear  enough.  Projects  may  represent  the 
work  of  an  hour  or  of  a  year.  Moreover,  there  are  projects 
within  projects.  The  idea  is  certainly  good,  especially  in  the 
vocational  subjects  and  hi  general  science.  The  technic  for 
its  realization  is  yet  in  the  making.2 

The  first  two  implications  of  problematic  learning  have 
been  given  as  the  student's  knowledge  of  the  situation  and 
its  appeal  to  him,  and  have  been  provided  for  by  the  require- 
ments that  the  problem  shall  be  definitely  understood  by  the 
student  and  shall  be  for  him  a  real  problem.  With  these 
requirements  met  there  follows  naturally  his  response  to  the 
situation,  and  with  this  the  three  remaining  steps  of  thinking 
have  to  deal 

2.  The  Tentative  Solution  of  the  Problem. — The  recogni- 
tion of  a  problem  and  the  feeling  that  it  is  of  real  significance 
leads  one  to  undertake  its  solution.  An  unsolved  problem  is 
like  an  unbalanced  force,  which  will  not  cease  to  act  until  it 
has  come  to  equilibrium,  either  by  realizing  itself  as  action7 
or  by  encountering  an  insurmountable  obstacle.  Thus  it  is 
that  the  high  school  student,  when  once  he  feels  the  challenge 

'In  reply,  Professor  Woodhull  writes:  "The  whole  movement  is  an 
attempt  to  introduce  first  of  all  a  very  specific  organization  where  none 
now  exists,  and  secondly  a  very  different  kind  of  organization  from  that 
hitherto  attempted."  In  School  Science  and  Mathematics,  vol.  XV,  p. 
229. 

*  In  addition  to  the  references  already  cited,  the  teacher  may  profitably 
read  tin- article,  "Project  Science,  Progressive,"  by  J.  C.  Moore,  in  School 
Science  and  Mathematics,  vol.  XVI,  p.  686,  and  chaps.  XIII-XVIII  of 
"The  Teaching  of  Science,"  by  J.  F.  Woodhull. 


152  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

of  a  problem,  will  not  rest  until  he  has  made  at  least  an  effort 
at  its  solution.  He  produces,  therefore,  at  least  a  tentative 
solution  or  hypothesis,  not  always  definitely  formulated,  often 
with  no  clear  consciousness  of  what  he  is  doing,  but  one  which 
nevertheless  serves  as  the  point  of  departure  and  preliminary 
guiding  principle  in  the  quest  of  the  desired  solution. 

Types  of  Hypothesis. — Naturally  the  form  which  the 
hypothesis  or  tentative  solution  takes  follows  directly  from 
the  form  or  type  of  the  problem  itself.  If  the  latter  be  induc- 
tive, the  hypothesis  will  be  a  generalization,  in  the  form 
either  of  a  class  or  of  a  general  principle  or  law.  As  examples 
of  the  class-forming  hypothesis  we  might  recall  the  illustra- 
tions given  earlier.1  Such  is  the  statement  that  in  German 
all  prepositions  indicating  direction  of  motion  govern  the 
dative,  or  that  all  crystals  whose  faces  meet  at  a  certain  angle 
are  salts  from  sulphuric  acid.  Whether  correct  or  not  can 
in  these  cases  be  determined  only  by  subsequent  observation, 
but  in  their  present  form  they  serve  the  purpose  of  working 
bases  for  further  investigation.  An  illustration  of  the  second 
type,  for  the  establishment  of  a  general  principle  or  law, 
would  be  the  hypothesis  that  the  rate  of  vibration  of  the 
pendulum  depends  upon  the  length  of  the  pendulum  and  the 
weight  of  the  bob.  As  in  the  previous  case,  this  hypothesis, 
although  only  partially  correct,  serves  as  the  starting-point 
for  the  solution  of  the  problem.  In  a  similar  way,  the  hy- 
pothesis in  the  deductive  thinking  consists  merely  in  the 
solutions  which  the  student  believes  will  serve  and  upon  the 
basis  of  which  his  further  procedure  depends.  He  attempts 
to  explain  the  presence  of  deep  parallel  scratches  on  a  flat 
stone  and  forms  the  hypothesis  that  they  were  caused  by 
glacial  action.  When  called  upon  to  factor  xz  —  289,  he 
forms  the  hypothesis  that  it  is  the  difference  of  two  squares 
and  factorable  accordingly.  The  determination  of  the  motive 
in  Macbeth's  action  starts  with  a  hypothetical  explanation 
as  a  basis,  to  be  established  or  revised  as  the  study  proceeds. 

lCf.  pp.  140 /. 


THE  PROBLEMATIC  MODE  '  1 53 

The  essentials  of  a  good  hypothesis  in  instruction  are 
fundamentally  those  of  a  good  problem,  since  the  hypothesis 
is  but  the  logical  sequent  of  the  problem. 

A  first  essential  of  the  hypothesis  is  that  it  shall  be  a 
definite  one  in  the  student's  mind.  It  must  be  one  that,  for 
the  student,  naturally  and  consciously  presents  itself  as  a 
solution  of  the  problem,  one  that  he  himself  suggests  and 
formulates  rather  than  one  suggested  or  dictated  to  him  by 
authority.  Only  when  the  initiative  rests  with  the  student 
will  the  principle  of  activity  and  self-reliance  be  realized. 
Many  of  the  so-called  hypotheses  in  poor  teaching  do  not 
originate  with  the  student  at  all,  but  are  more  or  less  incom- 
plete tellings  and  dictations  by  the  teacher  or  text-book,  and 
arouse  but  little  response  from  the  pupil,  for  any  well-trained 
schoolboy  resents  being  told  what  he  wanted  to  find  out  for 
himself.  This  does  not  necessarily  imply  that  the  hypothesis 
shall  be  formally  stated  by  him,  especially  where  the  proce- 
dure is  simple  and  obvious  and  a  formal  statement  would 
hinder  rather  than  further  progress.  On  the  other  hand, 
where  the  procedure  is  at  all  complex  and  obscure  and  there 
is  danger  of  losing  one's  bearings,  a  well-formulated  state- 
ment of  the  hypothesis  serves  as  a  landmark  in  preventing 
wanderings  and  assisting  the  student  to  stay  by  his  task. 

The  second  requirement  is  that  the  hypothesis  shall  sug- 
gest, for  the  student  at  least,  a  real  solution  to  the  problem. 
Only  when  he  offers  a  rational  solution  that  appears  adequate 
and  not  a  mere  guess  will  it  be  a  real  hypothesis  and  of  edu- 
cational value.  With  his  limited  experience  and  consequent 
want  of  judgment,  his  hypothesis  will  at  best  often  prove 
inadequate  and  erroneous,  and  demand  reconstruction. 
However,  a  goal  to  be  sought  in  education  is  the  ability  to 
secure  results  with  minimal  expenditure  of  time  and  energy, 
and  the  high  school  boy  should  early  be  made  to  realize  that 
he  is  responsible  for  results  and  that  ill-grounded  guesses 
seldom  secure  the  results  sought.  Thus  the  formation  of  a 
hypothesis  furnishes  a  training  in  judgment  in  the  evaluation 


154  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

of  alternatives  such  as  is  afforded  in  few  of  the  educational 
activities. 

The  teacher's  function  at  this  stage  of  problematic  pro- 
cedure is  not  passive,  however.  It  might  be  said  to  be  two- 
fold. First,  the  teacher  must  by  skilful  development  arouse 
the  student  to  the  formation  and  formulation  of  the  hypothe- 
sis. Second,  his  previous  training,  experience,  and  study  of 
the  lesson  and  of  the  pupils  should  enable  him  to  anticipate 
the  guesses  and  solutions  that  will  be  suggested,  and  he 
should  thus  be  prepared  so  to  treat  them  as  to  guide  them 
toward  positive  results.  All  this  is  a  prominent  element  in 
skill  in  teaching,  and  involves  a  wise  employment  of  encourag- 
ing, of  insisting,  of  questioning,  and  even  of  suggesting  and 
telling. 

3.  Reasoning  Out  the  Implications  of  the  Hypothesis. — 
The  requirement  that  the  hypothesis  or  tentative  solution 
shall  be  rational  carries  with  it  the  presumption  that  it  shall 
be  reasoned  out,  and  that  its  implications  be  traced  through 
in  order  to  establish  its  validity.  It  is  here  that  the  real 
hard  thinking  of  the  problem  is  encountered.  Here  the  prin- 
ciples of  cause  and  effect,  of  essential  and  incidental,  of  simi- 
larity and  difference  are  applied.  Here  occurs  the  interplay 
of  induction  and  deduction,  wherein  generalizations  are  made, 
and  applied  in  the  explanation  of  the  particular  data  of  the 
problem.  Imagination  functions  in  that  unseen  causes  and 
effects  are  ideally  dealt  with,  since  their  actual  employment 
is  impossible  or  inconvenient,  or  the  student,  unable  to  try 
all  of  the  suggested  lines  of  action,  selects  which  one  to 
employ.  He  sees  the  reasonableness  of  his  hypothesis  that 
x2  —  289  is  the  difference  of  two  squares,  since  the  second 
term,  289,  ends  in  a  9,  making  it  a  potential  square.  In 
the  case  of  the  study  of  Macbeth's  character,  there  would  be 
times  when  Macbeth  would  still  shrink  from  the  crime  when 
the  danger  of  discovery  was  forgotten  or  when  his  moral 
objections  were  met.  In  the  case  of  the  pendulum,  a  change 
in  size  of  bob  alone  or  in  length  of  cord  alone  would  affect 
vibration  rate. 


THE   PROBLEMATIC   MODE  155 

Hypothesis  Must  Be  the  Student's  Own. — A  first  require- 
ment of  the  "reasoning  out"  step  is  that  it  shall  originate 
with  the  student.  It  shall  represent  his  own  thinking,  since 
borrowed  reasoning  ceases  thereby  to  be  thinking  and  becomes 
essentially  memory  material.  As  in  the  case  of  the  problem 
formulation  and  the  hypothetical  solution,  so  hi  the  case  of 
the  reasoning,  the  student  initiative  and  activity  must  be 
preserved.  No  more  here  than  in  the  preceding  steps  is  the 
teacher  to  be  a  mere  interested  spectator,  but,  as  before,  his 
task  consists  in  a  skilful  questioning,  suggesting,  and  stimu- 
lating, so  conducted  that  the  student  will  with  minimal  ex- 
penditure of  time  and  energy  discover  the  implications  of  his 
hypothesis.  Here  again  the  teacher  is  confronted  by  the  old 
problem,  how  far  he  should  assist  the  student  in  his  rea- 
soning. Left  wholly  to  himself,  the  student  will  infer  wrongly, 
overlook  essentials,  and  expend  his  efforts  in  almost  valueless 
gropings  for  the  truth.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  teacher 
assists  too  much,  the  student  becomes  dependent  and  loses 
the  zest  of  the  problem  as  such.  It  is  herein  that  skill  in 
instruction  is  employed,  for  the  skilful  teacher  by  watchful, 
intelligent,  sympathetic  observation  will  discover  empirically 
the  boundary  between  leading  and  carrying.  In  general, 
when  the  student  reasons  wrongly  and  the  costliness  of  the 
error  offsets  the  value  of  finding  it  out  by  results,  the  teacher 
should  by  questioning  and  in  some  cases  by  telling  lead  the 
pupil  to  see  what  would  otherwise  have  been  overlooked. 
The  suggestions  sometimes  made  that  the  student  should 
never  be  told  what  he  can  find  out  for  himself,  and  that  he 
should  be  told  when  mistaken  in  order  to  save  him  waste  of 
effort,  are  both  extreme.  The  truth  lies  in  a  rational  appli- 
cation of  the  principle  of  each. 

Soundness  of  Hypothesis. — The  second  requirement  of 
the  "reasoning  out"  step  is  that  it  shall  be  sound.  To  per- 
mit a  student  to  believe  he  is  reasoning  when  in  reality  he  is 
imagining  or  guessing  is  to  stunt  for  him  one  of  the  highest, 
perhaps  the  highest,  of  his  mental  powers,  for  so  long  as  he 
mistakes  illogical  for  logical  thinking  he  will  never  learn  to 


156  PRINCIPLES  OF   TEACHING 

reason  logically.  Sound  reasoning  involves  not  merely  valid 
reasoning  but  reasoning  in  a  rational  sequence.  A  demonstra- 
tion in  geometry  may  possess  validity  and  yet  at  the  same 
time  be  illogically  organized.  Moreover,  it  must  be  relevant, 
dealing  really  with  the  problem  in  hand.  Too  often  students 
axe  disposed  in  the  solution  of  a  problem  to  say  things  about 
the  problem  which  contribute  nothing  toward  its  solution, 
offering  as  justification  the  fact  that  what  they  said  is  true. 

Sound  reasoning  is  reasoning  which  is  valid,  sequent,  and 
relevant,  and  none  other  should  be  accepted  by  the  teacher. 
However,  the  first  efforts  of  the  student  will  usually  fall  far 
short  of  this  ideal.  His  ignorance  of  the  succeeding  steps, 
his  lack  of  perspective,  and  his  want  of  training  prevent  per- 
fect success  at  the  first  attempt.  Hence,  it  is  usually  wise  to 
go  again  over  the  argument,  selecting,  organizing,  and  polish- 
ing, so  that  when  completed  it  affords  him  a  measure  of  sat- 
isfaction and  pride.  The  consciousness  that  a  thing  has  been 
well  done  is  a  valuable  incentive  to  doing  other  things  well. 

4.  Verification  of  Hypothesis. — We  have  referred  to  the 
hypothesis  as  a  tentative  solution.  It  is  therefore  anticipa- 
tory in  character,  in  that  it  represents  a  conclusion  to  be 
temporarily  accepted  until  its  validity  or  inadequacy  can  be 
established.  The  final  stage  of  the  complete  act  of  thought 
is  thus  the  verification  of  the  hypothesis  or  tentative  solution 
of  the  problem  with  which  the  thought  concerns  itself. 

Material  for  the  Verification. — The  situation  out  of  which 
the  problem  arises  is  essentially  concrete,  and  the  final  test 
of  the  validity  of  the  hypothesis  is  its  workableness  in  the 
concrete.  Thus  verification,  like  the  recognition  and  formu- 
lation of  the  problem,  involves  the  observation  of  the  con- 
crete. However,  the  observation  in  the  two  cases  differs  in 
two  essential  features,  its  aim  and  its  material.  The  aim  of 
the  observation  in  the  first  step  is  the  formulation  of  the 
hypothesis,  in  the  last  step  it  is  the  testing  of  the  hypothesis. 
The  material  of  the  observation  in  the  first  step  is  not  a 
matter  of  choice,  but  is  determined  by  the  problematic  situa 


THE   PROBLEMATIC   MODE  157 

tion  itself;  in  the  last  step,  that  material  is  selected  which 
most  adequately  represents  the  range  of  application  of  the 
hypothesis.  The  material  is  thus  determined  by  the  aim. 

The  material  observed  in  the  verification  of  the  hypothesis 
is  derived  from  two  sources.  In  a  large  part  of  the  curricu- 
lum, and  especially  in  the  humanities,  it  is  an  observation  of 
already  existent  data  or  phenomena.  In  other  cases,  espe- 
cially in  the  natural  sciences  and  mathematics,  it  is  made  to 
order,  supplied  specifically  in  the  form  of  experiment.  As 
will  be  seen  later,  this  element  of  observation  occurs  also  hi 
the  laboratory  mode  of  instruction,  and,  indeed,  it  would  be 
difficult  to  draw  any  sharp  line  of  demarcation  between  prob- 
lematic and  laboratory  instruction.  The  laboratory  mode 
may  even  be  employed  in  the  verification  of  the  hypothesis 
formulated  already  in  the  problematic  procedure  or  may, 
indeed,  form  a  real  part  of  the  latter.  The  further  treatment 
of  this  relation  must  be  deferred  until  the  laboratory  mode 
has  received  some  consideration. 

Verification  and  Application. — Between  the  verification  of 
the  problematic  procedure  and  the  application  mode  of  in- 
struction, there  is  an  at  least  seeming  parallelism,  in  that  in 
each  case  the  abstraction  or  generalization  of  the  problematic 
procedure  is  applied  to  a  variety  of  concrete  cases.  The  dif- 
ference is  thus  not  one  of  form,  for  in  form  the  two  are  alike. 
The  difference  is  rather  one  of  aim,  in  that  the  verification  is 
for  the  sake  of  reassurance  that  the  hypothesis  is  sound, 
whereas  the  application  presupposes  the  validity  of  the  prin- 
ciple. The  former  is  primarily  for  the  sake  of  efficiency. 
With  this  relationship  the  chapter  on  the  application  mode 
will  deal  more  fully. 

Validity  of  Verification. — For  positive  certainty  of  the 
validity  of  the  hypothesis  or  generalization,  the  verification  is 
absolutely  essential.  One  of  the  most  valuable  ends  to  be 
attained  in  high  school  instruction  is  the  appreciation  of  cer- 
tainty in  knowledge,  and  a  disposition  to  be  satisfied  without 
assurance  when  assurance  is  attainable  is  the  mark  of  the 


158  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

happy-go-lucky,  a  most  undesirable  trait  in  any  individual's 
make-up. 

However,  complete  verification  is  sometimes  impossible, 
and  when  possible  is  occasionally  unprofitable,  especially  for 
the  high  school  student.  The  hypothesis  that  the  scratches 
on  the  rock  were  caused  by  glacial  action  can  never  be  proved 
although  found  to  be  extremely  probable.  The  motive  of 
the  general  in  the  campaign  or  of  the  character  in  the  play 
are  rarely  positively  declared  but  merely  to  be  inferred.  The 
verification  of  some  of  the  laws  as  presented  in  elementary 
algebra  is,  for  the  high  school  student,  valid  only  with  posi- 
tive integral  exponents,  yet  the  rule  as  formulated  by  him  is 
treated  as  if  of  general  validity.  Although  demonstrable 
deductively  in  higher  mathematics,  it  is  here  capable  of  but 
an  inductive  inference  based  on  a  special  type  of  cases.  In 
secondaiy  education  most  of  the  verifications  are  inductive 
rather  than  deductive  in  character,  are  based  on  observation 
of  typical  cases  rather  than  on  necessary  relationships,  and 
accordingly  are  valid  only  in  so  far  as  the  cases  selected  for 
the  verification  are  representative. 

Thus  the  so-called  proofs  are  often  mere  inferences,  with 
a  high  degree  of  probability  for  their  justification.  The  rea- 
soning in  not  a  little  of  the  deductive  verification  of  high 
school  work  is  valid  to  the  student  only.  Induction,  even  at 
its  best,  involves  an  inference  from  a  few  known  cases  to  a 
multitude  of  unknown  cases.  Yet  this  does  not  imply  that 
the  student  shall  be  taught  to  accept  slipshod  reasoning  as 
final,  or  that  the  inference  of  induction  shall  be  a  leap  in  the 
dark.  Rather,  it  means  that  the  student  shall  be  made  to 
evaluate  properly  the  product  of  his  thinking.  Although 
desiring  positive  certainty,  he  should  when  that  is  unattain- 
able or  unprofitable  seek  an  approximation  in  the  form  of  a 
probability,  at  the  same  time  appreciating  the  degree  of  the 
probability.  Though  he  must  at  times  generalize  with  in- 
adequate data,  it  need  not  be  a  rash  generalization,  and  will 
not  be  if  it  was  the  best  that  could  be  done  and  is  correctly 


THE  PROBLEMATIC  MODE  159 

evaluated  He  should  learn,  also,  how  to  evaluate  the  prem- 
ises or  data  from  which  he  draws  his  conclusion,  realizing 
that  often  even  a  single  case  may,  by  the  principle  of  the 
uniformity  of  nature,  furnish  adequate  basis  for  generaliza- 
tion. 

Types  of  Verification. — Because  the  types  of  problem  and 
of  hypothesis  in  different  studies  vary  widely,  we  find  a  corre- 
sponding variety  in  the  types  of  verification.  The  factoring 
of  xz  —  289  is  verified  by  a  reversal  of  the  operation,  and 
multiplying  together  the  two  factors  obtained  in  the  solution 
of  the  problem.  In  both  algebra  and  geometry  a  partial 
verification  is  often  possible  by  the  substitution  of  numerical 
values  for  the  algebraic  or  linear  values.  In  the  case  of 
geometry  the  student  should  be  taught  to  see  first  if  the  con- 
clusion claimed  appears  reasonable  in  the  figure  drawn,  before 
attempting  a  more  exact  verification.  The  physics  student 
who  has  formulated  the  law  of  the  pendulum  verifies  the 
same  by  experimenting  with  variations  of  bob  and  of  length. 
In  a  science  like  zoology  or  some  parts  of  physical  geography, 
where  experiment  is  unavailable,  recourse  is  had  to  observa- 
tion of  data  which  are  intelligently  and  widely  selected,  in- 
cluding not  only  the  cases  that  seem  to  confirm  but  also  those 
that  seem  to  discredit  the  hypothesis.  In  the  study  of  his- 
tory, the  verification  takes  still  different  forms.  Here  the 
anticipatory  judgment1  looks  for  its  justification  to  the  facts 
related  in  the  text  or  reference  books,  or  even  to  the  pupil's 
own  experience. 

Statement  of  Verification. — The  definite  statement  or  for- 
mulation of  the  verification  usually  offers  two  important 
advantages.  First,  it  encourages  greater  clarity  of  thought 
in  the  verification.  Careless  language  is  frequently  a  mask 
for  careless  thought,  and  the  necessity  for  justifying  one's 
verification  will  induce  an  increased  care  in  the  reasoning. 
Clearer  expression,  better  organization  of  thought,  and  more 
careful  thinking  will  thus  be  encouraged.  Second,  the  formal 

1  Cf.  p.  141. 


160  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

statement  will  afford  opportunity  for  the  correction  of  errors 
in  reasoning  and  in  concept.  Not  only  the  teacher  but  the 
class  as  well  can  scrutinize  and,  if  necessary,  correct  the 
reasoning,  thus  securing  for  the  pupil  accuracy  of  thinking 
and  correctness  of  solution  of  his  problem. 

Explanation. — Closely  related  to  verification  is  explana- 
tion. Each  is  a  review  of  a  completed  process  of  thought, 
but  with  a  distinct  aim.  In  the  explanation  all  that  is  in- 
cluded is  a  recital  of  the  successive  steps  in  the  solution  of 
the  problem  and  the  purpose  of  each,  whereas  the  verification 
has  especially  to  do  with  the  reasons  for  believing  the  solu- 
tion to  be  correct.  The  former  tells  in  a  simplified  form 
what  was  done  and  why,  the  latter  is  to  show  that  the  method 
was  such  as  to  realize  the  aim.  "An  explanation,"  says 
Professor  Smith,  "never  attempts  to  state  the  reasons  for, 
or  causes  of,  scientific  fact.  .  .  .  An  explanation  is  simply  a 
description  which  relates  a  thing  or  idea  to  other  more  familiar 
things  or  ideas.  In  this  way  we  explain  the  hastening  of  the 
evolution  of  hydrogen,  when  a  little  cupric  sulphate  is  added, 
by  reference  to  what  we  know  about  electric  couples.  .  .  . 
The  employment  of  terminology  is  not  explanation." l  These 
statements  hold  of  explanations  in  general.  Explanation  of 
an  algebraic  solution  of  a  problem  in  complex  fractions  con- 
sists in  analyzing  the  solution  into  a  series  of  simpler  well- 
known  processes,  involving  simple  fractions  and  the  funda- 
mental operations. 

The  character  of  the  explanation  furnishes  the  basis  for 
its  function.  When  the  method  of  solution  of  a  problem  is, 
as  a  method,  worthy  of  special  attention,  often  because  it 
typifies  a  number  of  similar  processes,  it  can  best  receive  such 
attention  by  analysis  into  its  component  elements.  It  is 
just  this  analysis,  this  statement  of  the  new  and  the  complex 
in  terms  of  the  older  and  simpler,  that  constitutes  explana- 
tion. When  the  pupil  has  solved  the  problem  and  is  called 
upon  to  explain  it,  he  and  his  hearers  rethink  the  process  of 

1  Smith  and  Hall,  "The  Teaching  of  Chemistry  and  Physics,"  p.  147. 


THE  PROBLEMATIC  MODE  l6l 

the  solution,  thus  impressing  it  more  deeply,  and  because  of 
the  shorter  time  required  in  the  explanation  than  that  of  the 
original  solution,  the  whole  is  seen  in  better  perspective  and 
unity.  The  additional  benefit  derived  by  the  student  from 
the  organization  and  expression  of  thought  is  also  consider- 
able. 

What  constitutes  a  good  explanation?  Taking  the  aim 
as  basis  for  the  evaluation,  it  would  be  such  as  most  clearly 
and  adequately  brings  out  the  process  or  relationship  which 
the  problem  was  primarily  intended  to  realize.  With  a  prob- 
lem in  factoring  by  inspection,  the  explanation  would  point 
out  how  familiar  processes  had  been  utilized  in  the  solution; 
nothing  more  and  nothing  less  than  this.  It  would  not  in- 
volve an  explanation  of  incidental  and  familiar  processes, 
such  as  the  subtraction  of  exponents  or  the  removal  of  paren- 
theses except  in  so  far  as  these  are  specially  and  peculiarly 
concerned  with  the  process  of  factoring.  An  explanation  of 
a  solution  does  not  mean  the  relating  of  everything  that  has 
been  done,  but  only  what  serves  to  explain  the  process  for 
which  the  problem  is  intended.  Evidently,  merely  reading 
what  is  written  upon  the  board  is  not  explaining,  but  the 
explanation  should  involve  rethinking  as  well  as  resaying. 
Explanation  of  the  self-evident  is  meaningless  and  absurd. 
Better  understanding  of  its  function  and  character  would 
raise  explanation  from  the  mechanism  so  often  given  the 
name  to  the  level  of  real  educative  activity  on  the  part  of 
the  student,  and  incidentally  result  in  a  great  economy  of 
time  and  attention. 

Verification  and  Proof. — The  relation  between  verification 
and  proof  or  demonstration  is  more  immediate.  As  the  term 
is  commonly  used,  a  proof  or  demonstration  is  logically  prac- 
tically the  same  as  verification,  and  differs  from  it  in  being 
the  expression  of  a  verification  for  the  sake  of  another  party. 
The  verification  is  involved  in  the  problematic  procedure  and 
is  completed  when  the  observer  himself  has  seen  that  his 
hypothesis  is  valid.  Proof  or  demonstration  consists  in  con- 


l62  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

verting  that  verification  into  language,  as  a  means  to  its 
expression,  so  that  the  certainty  may  be  shared  by  another. 
The  student  may  be  justly  convinced  that  his  problem  has 
been  correctly  solved,  but  if  he  wishes  to  justify  that  con- 
viction to  others  he  must  express  that  verification  in  terms 
of  principles  already  accepted  by  the  observer.  For  this 
reason  many  problems,  in  all  fields  of  study,  are  wholly  un- 
suited  for  demonstration,  in  that  they  are  so  self-evident 
that  proof  would  be  superfluous. 

Teacher's  Function  in  the  Thought  Problem.— In  the 
foregoing  paragraphs  of  this  section  the  point  of  view  taken 
has  in  the  main  been  that  of  the  student  as  learner.  At  the 
risk  of  repetition,  it  will  perhaps  be  worth  our  while  to  trace 
through  the  teacher's  part  in  the  thought  type  of  the  prob- 
lematic mode.  Evidently  his  first  efforts  must  be  aimed  at 
bringing  to  the  student's  consciousness  the  problematic  char- 
acter of  the  situation.  He  must  induce  the  problem  atti- 
tude. Merely  telling  a  student  that  the  situation  is  prob- 
lematic avails  nothing.  He  must  be  made  to  see  and  feel 
an  intellectual  need;  the  point  of  incompleteness  in  the  sys- 
tem of  his  experience  must  cry  out  for  remedy.  Here  the 
teacher  may,  by  question  and  suggestion,  bring  the  lack  to 
consciousness  by  bringing  the  pupil  to  the  point  where  his 
lack  baffles  progress  in  his  thought,  and  challenges  to  solu- 
tion. Then,  as  the  problematic  character  of  the  situation  is 
realized,  further  questions  and  suggestions  must  lead  the  stu- 
dent to  the  exact  localization  of  the  problem.  The  teacher 
must  bring  him  not  alone  to  realize  the  existence  of  something 
to  be  thought  out,  but  also  to  run  it  down  and  isolate  it  for 
investigation.  The  known  and  the  unknown  must  be  clearly 
distinguished. 

The  attempt  at  a  hypothesis  must  at  first  be  a  groping, 
but  not  necessarily  a  groping  in  the  dark.  The  teacher, 
already  knowing  the  situation,  must  throw  the  light  upon 
the  points  to  which  he  wishes  his  pupils  to  reach  out.  Nat- 
urally he  can  herein  exercise  a  selective  function.  By  ques- 


THE   PROBLEMATIC   MODE  163 

tion  and  suggestion  he  leads  the  pupil  to  combine  all  the 
promising  elements  which  the  latter  has  found  into  a  seem- 
ingly consistent  and  rational  hypothesis.  But  young  people 
are  naturally  impetuous,  and  prone  to  jump  at  conclusions. 
Incautiously  they  accept  seeming  solutions  unchallenged. 
Here  the  teacher's  best  service  may  be  that  of  restraint.  He 
may  do  well  to  seemingly  deny  the  hypothesis  as  formulated. 
At  any  rate,  he  must  direct  the  student's  attention  to  the 
necessity  of  looking  into  the  implications  of  that  hypothesis; 
to  a  sense  of  responsibility  for  it  and  a  determination  to  be 
safe  and  assured. 

Verification  is  the  outcome  of  that  determination.  As  at 
the  outset  of  the  problem  he  wanted  to  know  its  solution,  so 
now  his  determination  to  know  must  culminate  in  the  feeling 
that  he  does  know;  that  he  really  has  truth.  But  how  is  he 
to  know?  The  teacher's  service  here  seems  to  be  primarily 
that  of  directing  to  ways  and  opportunities  for  trying  out  his 
supposed  solution.  His  wider  experience  is  at  the  student's 
disposal,  to  suggest  possible  situations  where  the  hypothesis 
would  be  most  likely  to  break  down.  Then,  in  turn,  if  it 
stands  the  test,  to  guide  the  student  to  recognition  of  its 
truth.  If  it  fails  (and  false  hypotheses  are  often  good  teach- 
ing material),  he  should  guide  to  a  reanalysis  of  the  implica- 
tion, a  discovery  of  defects,  and  a  corrected  solution. 

In  the  problematic  mode  the  teacher  guides  the  student 
into  the  mines  of  truth  by  going  behind  with  the  candle  and 
admonishing  his  charge  to  keep  within  the  circle  of  its  illu- 
mination. 

5.    APPLICATION  OF  THE  PROBLEMATIC  MODE  IN  TEACHING 

Forms  of  Problematic  Procedure. — Our  previous  sections 
have  endeavored  to  show  that  whenever  the  knowledge  of 
the  new  is  sought  in  instruction,  the  problematic  is  the  mode 
of  development  which  is  naturally  involved.  Attention  was 
also  called  to  the  fact  that,  when  a  complete  act  of  thought  is 


164  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

involved,  problematic  procedure  falls  into  a  fairly  well-defined 
movement  from  knowledge  of  concrete  facts  through  general 
conclusion  upon  these  facts  to  the  application  of  the  gen- 
eralizations to  further  concrete  cases.  Yet  in  the  work  of 
the  class  exercise  the  act  of  thought  is  very  frequently  incom- 
plete. The  development  of  an  entire  class  hour  may  be  em- 
ployed in  getting  information,  in  deriving  a  general  principle, 
or  in  verifying  and  applying  a  principle  previously  discovered. 

Although  the  complete  act  of  thought,  involving  all  of  its 
logical  steps,  is  in  some  degree  inherent  in  every  study  of  the 
high  school  curriculum,  the  proportion  between  the  different 
elements  varies  greatly  in  the  different  subjects.  In  the 
physical  sciences  and  especially  physics  and  chemistry,  the 
discovery  of  general  laws  occupies  a  large  amount  of  the  stu- 
dent's attention.  However,  the  verification  is  also  common, 
so  that  here  the  circle  of  thought  is  exemplified  perhaps  as 
well  as  anywhere  in  the  high  school  curriculum.  Not  only 
the  informational  problem  occurs,  but  still  more  the  thought 
type  of  problem,  both  inductive  and  deductive.  In  the  bio- 
logical sciences  and  agriculture,  the  informational  and  the 
deductive  problems  prevail,  since  the  causal  element  upon 
which  the  general  laws  are  based  is  so  often  inaccessible  for 
the  high  school  student.1  Much  of  his  discovery  is  of  par- 
ticular facts  rather  than  of  general  principles,  and  a  larger 
part  of  the  remainder  consists  of  the  observation  and  verifica- 
tion of  what  another  has  already  discovered  and  formulated. 
Possibly  the  most  of  the  inductive  work  in  this  department  of 
study  is  in  the  type  study  of  zoology,  wherein  the  student 
observes  several  members  of  a  group  in  order  to  determine 
the  common  features  of  that  group,  and  this  type  study  is 
about  the  only  form  of  laboratory  work  available  in  the  high 
school  course  in  biological  sciences. 

In  mathematics,  the  information  problem  occurs  but  little 
if  at  all.  The  study  is  by  its  nature  essentially  one  of  neces- 
sary relationships,  not  of  chance,  and  the  thought  problem  is 
1  Lloyd  and  Bigelow,  "The  Teaching  of  Biology,"  p.  52. 


THE   PROBLEMATIC   MODE  165 

the  result.  In  the  discovery  and  formulation  of  the  general 
rules  and  principles  the  procedure  is  inductive,  and  in  the 
verification  of  the  principles  and  their  application  in  the  solu- 
tion of  the  set  exercises  and  problems  the  process  is  deduc- 
tive. The  direction  so  often  met,  "Teach  by  the  inductive 
method,"  thus  has  a  measure  of  truth,  for  merely  to  dictate 
rules  authoritatively  rather  than  to  develop  them  with  the 
class  is  to  rob  the  student  of  probably  the  best  thing  in  educa- 
tion, the  zest  of  discovery  and  self-activity,  and  to  render  him 
a  follower  of  authority  instead  of  a  seeker  after  truth.  The 
working  of  examples  is  an  essential  and  most  helpful  train- 
ing, but  does  not  of  itself  constitute  mathematical  training. 
If  all  of  the  mathematics  is  taught,  the  admonition  to  teach 
inductively  as  well  as  deductively  will  automatically  be  fol- 
lowed in  so  far  as  the  subject  occasions.  Geometry  has  long 
been  considered  a  peculiarly  deductive  science,  a  belief  which 
seems  to  have  originated  in  the  emphasis  formerly  laid  upon 
its  demonstrative  activities,  and  to  have  been  self-perpetuat- 
ing in  that  it  has  led  to  a  continuance  of  the  emphasis  upon 
demonstration.  When  properly  taught,  geometrical  reason- 
ing begins  farther  back  than  the  demonstration  of  the  theo- 
rem, in  an  analysis  of  the  conditions  involved;  then,  by  a 
synthetic  procedure,  the  demonstration  itself  is  constructed. 
"The  classroom  in  geometry,"  says  Professor  Young,  "is  the 
place  par  excellence  for  the  analytic  method.  ...  If  the 
pupil  is  to  be  more  than  a  passive  learner,  he  must  be  shown 
the  chain  of  reasoning  by  which  the  proofs  given  in  the  text 
might  naturally  have  been  discovered.  Unless  he  catches 
the  spirit  of  geometric  analysis,  he  will  never  succeed  in  find- 
ing proofs  himself."  * 

In  the  humanities  the  problems  usually  take  forms  quite 
different  from  those  of  the  sciences.  Naturally  the  quantita- 
tive element  is  of  far  less  prominence.  In  the  study  of  his- 
tory the  problems  are  often  of  considerable  length  and  com- 
plexity, and  require  several  class  exercises  for  their  solu- 
1  Young,  "The  Teaching  of  Mathematics,"  pp.  260-261. 


1 66  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

tion.  It  therefore  frequently  happens  that  a  single  lesson 
may  be  predominantly  informational  in  character,  and  the 
class  not  realize  that  they  are  at  the  same  time  securing  data 
for  the  solution  of  a  larger  problem.  Moreover,  the  number 
of  generalizations  which  a  high  school  student  can  formulate 
in  the  field  of  history  is  decidedly  limited,  so  that  a  large  part 
of  the  historical  study  in  the  school  is  a  deductive  interpreta- 
tion of  particular  events  and  conditions  in  the  light  of  prin- 
ciples already  known,  though  often  not  clearly  conscious  in 
the  student's  mind.  One  of  the  most  urgent  needs  of  the 
history  teaching  of  our  schools  is  that  the  student,  as  well  as 
the  teacher,  realize  more  constantly  the  problematic  rather 
than  the  merely  informational  significance  of  the  study,  and 
the  truth  that  historical  facts  merely  as  facts  have  very  little 
educational  value. 

The  problematic  character  of  linguistic  study  has  received 
much  more  attention  during  the  past  few  years,  since  the 
inductive  method  of  study  has  been  employed  in  the  text- 
books. True  induction  implies  a  necessary  and  causal  rela- 
tionship, and  in  linguistic  study  wherein  many  of  the  relations 
are  arbitrary  and  the  generalizations  abound  in  exceptions, 
any  induction  is  at  best  an  approximation.  Much  of  the  ma- 
terial, therefore,  must  be  given  deductively  and  by  authority, 
either  through  the  text-book  or  by  the  teacher.  However, 
the  instructor  should  be  on  the  watch  for  any  opportunity 
for  the  student  to  derive  general  principles  by  inductive  ob- 
servation, and  when  the  effort  involved  in  the  inductive 
generalization  does  not  outweigh  the  benefit  to  be  derived, 
should  lead  the  student  to  the  inductive  discovery,  thus 
securing  for  him  the  benefits  which  result  from  self-activity. 

The  study  of  literature  has  its  learning  and  its  feeling 
elements.  The  latter  and  its  relation  to  the  former  form 
the  basis  for  the  folio  whig  chapter.  On  the  other  hand,  while 
the  learning  element  in  literary  study  has  in  it  very  little  of 
the  purely  informational  problem,  the  interpretation  of  a 
piece  of  literature  furnishes  thought  problems  in  abundance. 


THE  PROBLEMATIC   MODE  167 

Comparisons  of  literary  style  and  motive,  the  grouping  of 
writers  and  movements,  the  derivation  of  ethical  principles 
are  instances  of  inductive  study.  The  interpretation  of  par- 
ticular passages  by  means  of  the  author's  moral  ideals  and 
the  tracing  of  philosophical  and  political  influence  in  a  book 
are  forms  of  deduction.  Whether  the  study  of  literature 
should  always  lead  to  an  aesthetic  or  ethical  outcome  as  its 
chief  aim  is  a  theoretical  problem  with  which  we  are  not  here 
concerned.  That  its  problematic  character  is  an  essential 
and  most  beneficial  one  is  evident.  High  school  music,  as 
commonly  taught,  offers  comparatively  few  problems,  but 
consists  mainly  of  training  in  appreciation  with  a  considerable 
degree  of  drill  upon  already  learned  activities. 

Vocational  and  applied  subjects  offer  peculiar  opportuni- 
ties for  the  use  of  the  problematic  mode,  due  to  the  readiness 
with  which  real  problematic  situations  can  be  found.  The 
desire  to  produce  a  certain  product,  such  as  a  bookcase,  a 
loaf  of  bread,  an  apron,  an  inventory,  or  a  business  letter  pro- 
vides a  well-motivated  situation  for  its  respective  problem. 

The  rapid  survey  made  in  the  preceding  paragraphs  will 
suffice  to  indicate  the  essentially  problematic  character  of 
high  school  studies.  The  entire  learning  activity  is  thus  seen 
to  owe  its  origin  to  the  student's  desire  to  find  out  or  to  think 
out  some  problem  which  has  arisen  in  the  course  of  his  study. 
The  problem  is  the  instigator  of  learning,  and  its  solution 
determines  the  form  and  type  of  the  learning.  The  four 
steps  in  problematic  instruction  are  thus  essential  elements 
in  every  study  which  involves  learning.  Each  study,  how- 
ever, has  its  distinctive  type  of  problematic  procedure,  and 
accordingly  fills  a  more  or  less  unique  place  in  the  education 
of  the  school. 

Transference  of  Acquired  Efficiency. — This  naturally 
raises  again  for  us  the  problem  of  the  transferrence  of  ac- 
quired efficiency.  To  what  degree  is  the  training  developed 
in  the  various  secondary  school  studies  serviceable  in  other 
fields? 


l'68  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

We  saw  in  an  earlier  chapter  (page  23)  that  the  essential 
for  such  transference  is  a  community  of  elements  between 
the  fields  in  question.  What  is  there  in  common  between 
the  training  in,  let  us  say,  algebra  and  physics  ?  In  both  the 
thought  type  of  the  problematic  mode  prevails,  in  which  the 
student  is  trained  to  a  certain  systematic  mode  of  attack. 
In  both  subjects  the  problem  attitude  must  lead  to  recogni- 
tion of  the  problem,  and  so  on  through  the  series  of  steps  in 
its  solution.  If  in  his  algebra  he  is  taught  that  the  way  to 
attack  any  problem  is  to  do  these  things,  that  generalized 
principle  of  method  will  function  in  his  physics  as  well,  though 
of  course  much  better  if  its  applicability  is  pointed  out  to 
him.  This  is  virtually  the  "scientific  method,"  which  we  are 
told  should  come  to  every  student  of  any  science.  In  this  he 
may  be  taught  to  assume  the  problem  attitude  of  mind  to- 
ward any  situation,  and  to  be  dissatisfied  with  a  solution  that 
is  not  convincing  when  subjected  to  scrutiny.  He  may  be 
taught  these  things.  Too  often  he  is  not,  because  the  general 
applicability  of  the  principle  involved,  the  community  of 
elements  between  the  various  situations,  is  not  brought  to  his 
notice.  In  the  latter  case  he  learns  algebra  perhaps,  but 
algebra  only. 

A  somewhat  similar  condition  holds  in  those  studies  or 
parts  of  studies  in  which  the  problematic  mode  is  of  the 
information  type.  Children  may  simply  be  told  to  look  in 
certain  places  for  desired  information.  Such  direction  has  no 
further  educative  value.  If,  however,  they  are  taught  to  be 
self-reliant  in  the  quest  for  information  of  whatever  sort,  and 
to  utilize  all  the  available  sources,  this  training  can  be  made 
to  function  widely.  What  was  said  in  the  last  paragraph 
about  the  problem  attitude  is  equally  applicable  here. 

In  the  case  of  the  training  of  observation  the  case  is  some- 
what different.  Observation  necessarily  involves  some  famil- 
iarity with  the  thing  to  be  observed.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
the  student  who  has  never  studied  natural  science  would  be 
very  observing  of  chemical  phenomena  in  the  way  in  which 


THE  PROBLEMATIC  MODE  169 

the  chemist  uses  the  term.  Content  functions  largely  here, 
as  an  " apperceptive  mass."  In  chemistry  and  physics  the 
content  is  somewhat  similar,  and  observation  trained  in  one 
may  function  somewhat  in  the  other. 

To  trace  through  the  application  of  the  principle  to  the 
various  studies  of  the  curriculum  and  to  the  many  elements 
of  training  is  not  within  the  scope  of  this  volume.  The  les- 
son for  us  seems  to  be  that  transferable  training  is  not  inherent 
in  subjects  as  such,  but  in  the  discovery  of  and  generalization 
upon  common  elements  in  the  various  types  of  study  and  of 
life  activity.  There  must  be  not  simple  associations  alone 
but  associations  after  disjunction. 

The  three  general  rules  outlined  in  Chapter  II  were 
these.  The  derivation  of  concepts  should  be  made  from  a 
wide  variety  of  cases,  the  meaning  rather  than  the  form 
should  be  made  the  basis  of  connections,  and  the  principles 
or  processes  should  be  given  a  wide  variety  of  applications. 
Of  these,  the  first  two  have  been  incorporated  in  the  thought 
of  the  entire  present  chapter.  The  third  will  find  its  place 
in  Chapter  X. 

"Our  pupils  do  not  think"  is  the  frequent  complaint  of 
high  school  teachers.  Doubtless  the  basis  for  this  condition 
lies  in  the  fact  that  students  are  not  trained  to  be  sensitive 
to  the  problems  that  confront  them.  They  are  seeking 
knowledge,  not  questions,  and  do  not  realize  that  questions 
are  the  means  to  knowledge.  It  is  peculiarly  the  opportunity 
of  the  problematic  mode  of  instruction  to  develop  this  sensi- 
tivity to  problems,  and  to  lead  the  student  from  the  attitude 
of  acceptance  of  ready-made  ideas  to  the  problem  attitude  of 
the  seeker  after  truth,  the  challenger  of  experience. 

Place  of  the  Problematic  Mode  in  the  Class  Exercise. — 
The  significance  of  the  problematic  mode  as  a  type  of  instruc- 
tion has  been  indicated.  How  and  where  shall  it  enter  into 
the  class  exercise?  The  propaedeutic  function  of  the  recita- 
tion mode,  as  treated  in  Chapter  VI,  was  based  upon  the  fact 
that  when  properly  selected  it  served  to  provide  the  back- 


I7O  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

ground  out  of  which  the  desire  for  further  knowledge  arose, 
and  to  revive  the  already  known  data  which  might  serve  in 
the  quest  for  that  desired  further  knowledge.  The  problem- 
atic development  consists  in  taking  a  situation  which  is 
familiar  in  most  respects  but  which  presents  one  phase  de- 
manding investigation,  and  leading  on  the  student  to  the 
solution  of  the  problem  thus  involved.  Evidently,  then,  the 
problematic  mode  naturally  begins  where  the  recitation  leaves 
off,  and  takes  its  origin  to  a  considerable  degree  in  the  recita- 
tion period.  The  class  exercise  thus  starts  naturally  with  the 
recitation  procedure,  and,  often  with  no  sharp  line  of  demar- 
cation, gives  way  to  problematic  procedure  as  the  problematic 
element  emerges  from  the  material  of  the  recitation.  It  is 
thus  that  the  principle  of  lesson  development,  "proceed  from 
the  known  to  the  unknown,"  finds  its  application. 

Can  the  problematic  procedure  be  profitably  employed  as 
the  sole  element  of  the  class  exercise?  Two  considerations 
point  to  a  negative  answer.  Procedure  from  the  known  to 
the  unknown  suggests  the  necessity  of  a  recitation  upon 
familiar  material  in  order  to  create  the  situation  out  of  which 
the  problem  arises.  To  plunge  abruptly  into  a  problem  with- 
out some  degree  of  introductory  thought  is  to  violate  the 
principle  just  referred  to,  and  at  the  same  time  is  contrary 
to  the  way  in  which  problems  actually  arise  outside  of  the 
school.  A  second  objection  to  such  procedure  is  the  failure 
to  provide  for  the  factor  of  expression  and  application,  the 
importance  of  which  has  already  been  mentioned,  and  which 
will  occupy  our  attention  later. 

6.    SUMMARY 

Problems  in  instruction  are  of  three  kinds — informational, 
inductive,  and  deductive — or  are  formed  by  the  synthesis  of 
these  elements. 

Information  reaches  the  student  from  either  of  three 
sources,  (i)  Telling,  especially  by  the  teacher,  (ii)  reading, 


THE  PROBLEMATIC  MODE 

principally  from  text-book  and  reference  books,  and  (iii) 
observation  and  experience  of  the  student. 

Problematic  procedure  involves  four  steps:  (i)  recognition 
and  formulation  of  the  problem,  (ii)  a  tentative  solution,  (iii) 
reasoning  out  its  implications,  and  (iv)  verification.  The 
first  of  these  calls  for  definite  understanding  of  the  problem, 
whether  informational,  inductive,  or  deductive.  The  prob- 
lem must  be  a  real  one  for  the  student.  The  tentative  solu- 
tion or  hypothesis  must  be  for  the  student  definitely  under- 
stood and  adequate  as  a  hypothesis.  The  implications  shall 
be  reasoned  out  by  the  student  rather  than  for  him,  and  the 
reasoning  shall  appeal  to  him  as  sound.  The  verification 
shall  be,  for  him  at  least,  conclusive.  Verification  must  be 
differentiated  from  both  explanation  and  demonstration.  The 
teacher's  function  is  to  stimulate  to  zeal  for  knowledge  and 
to  soundness  of  thinking. 

The  problematic  mode  is  applicable  to  nearly  all  the 
studies  in  the  high  school  curriculum,  especially  to  mathe- 
matics and  the  natural  sciences.  The  basis  for  the  informa- 
tional problem  is  simple  association;  for  the  thought  problem 
it  is  association  after  dissociation,  with  an  analysis-synthesis- 
analysis-synthesis1  movement.  Transferrence  of  acquired 
power  is  possible  in  the  case  of  problematic  learning  in  so 
far  as  community  of  elements  is  made  obvious  and  generali- 
zations drawn. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Can  you  suggest  any  content  of  secondary  school  instruction 
other  than  appreciation  material  that  cannot  be  advantageously  cast 
in  problem  form? 

2.  Is  there  a  tendency  for  undeveloped  content  (cf.  Chapter  VII, 
Question  2)  to  assume  the  form  of  the  finding-out  problem,  when  it 
properly  should  take  the  form  of  a  thought  problem?     Justify  your 
answer. 

3.  Is  the  good  text-book  the  one  that  tells  the  most?    What 
should  a  text-book  tell?     What  should  it  leave  untold? 

1  Cf.  p.  139- 


172  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

4.  Suggest  several  thought  problems  from  the  secondary  school 
subject  which  you  propose  to  teach.     Point  out  in  each  the  four  steps 
in  the  complete  act  of  thought. 

5.  From  the  same  study,  suggest  several  purely  inductive  prob- 
lems; several  purely  deductive  problems. 

6.  Suggest  thought  problems  which  are  so  simple  that  the  student 
is  not  conscious  of  taking  the  four  steps  involved. 

7.  Are  all  problems  equally  "real"  to  all  members  of  the  class? 

8.  Suggest  a  "project"  from  the  field  of  your  specialty,  and  indi- 
cate how  it  might  be  attacked. 

9.  If  a  student  suggests  a  false  hypothesis,  under  what  conditions 
would  you  permit  him  to  push  it  through  to  the  verification  step, 
without  calling  attention  to  its  falsity? 

10.  Does  it  destroy  the  pupil's  confidence  in  his  method  when  he 
is  shown  that  his  supposed  verification  is  really  only  a  partial  one, 
though  acceptable  for  present  needs? 

11.  Are  the  teacher's  and  the  pupil's  explanation  parallel  in  form? 
If  not,  wherein  do  they  differ?     Why? 

12.  How  far  can  training  in  geometric  reasoning  be  made  to  serve 
in  chemical  reasoning? 

13.  Select  some  thought  problem,  and  show  how  it  involves  the 
principle  of  association  after  dissociation. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READINGS 

De  Garmo,  "Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  Processes  of  Instruc- 
tion," chaps.  I,  II. 

De  Garmo,  "Interest  and  Education,"  chap.  XII. 

Dewey,  "How  We  Think,"  chaps.  VI,  VII,  XIV. 

Thorndike,  "Principles  of  Teaching,"  chap.  X. 

Strayer,  "Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process,"  chaps.  V,  VI. 

Parker,  "Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools,"  chap.  IX. 

Colvin,  "An  Introduction  to  High  School  Teaching,"  chap.  XIV. 

Bolton,  "Principles  of  Education,"  chap.  XXIV. 

Henry,  "The  Problem  Method  in  Teaching,"  in  School  and  Home 
Education,  February,  1917. 

Wilson,  "The  Problem  Attack  in  Teaching,"  in  Elementary  School 
Journal,  June,  1917. 

Rosenberger,  "The  Problem  Method  in  Teaching  History,"  in  Ntr- 
mal  Instructor  and  Primary  Plans,  November,  1916. 

Woodhull,  "The  Teaching  of  Science." 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  APPRECIATION  MODE 
i.     CHARACTER  AND  FUNCTION 

Meaning  of  Sentiment. — Following  the  student's  knowl- 
edge of  a  new  situation  with  its  appeal  to  him  comes  his  re- 
sponse to  it.  When  that  response  is  predominantly  intellec- 
tual, the  situation  is  to  that  degree  an  intellectual  one  and 
the  problematic  mode  of  instruction  is  employed  in  the  lesson 
development.  However,  in  many  cases  and  especially  in 
humanistic  studies,  the  response  has  in  it  something  more 
than  mere  knowledge  or  discovery  of  truth.  When  I  read  a 
poem,  contemplate  a  landscape,  study  an  animal  form,  or 
even  follow  a  geometrical  demonstration,  the  response  may 
be  more  than  the  merely  intellectual  one  of  knowing  and  of 
finding  out,  which  in  some  cases  may  be  comparatively 
negligible.  I  admire  the  form  and  style  of  the  poem,  the 
symmetry  and  color  of  the  landscape,  the  wonderful  adapta- 
tion in  the  animal  life,  the  directness  and  simplicity  of  the 
demonstration.  In  other  words,  I  form  in  each  of  these  cases 
a  critical  judgment,  pronouncing  the  object  of  study  beautiful 
or  true.  This  critical  attitude,  combined  with  the  stronger 
feeling  element,  the  satisfaction  or  dissatisfaction  which  ac- 
companies it,  is  what  is  known  as  sentiment,1  and  forms  the 
basis  of  the  situation  response  which  we  call  appreciation. 
To  appreciate  a  thing,  therefore,  means  to  experience  this 
sentimental  response  to  it. 

Sentiment  is  more  than  mere  emotion,  though  the  terms 
are  often  used  interchangeably.  Emotion  is  a  complete  sur- 

1  For  a  more  adequate  treatment  of  sentiment  the  reader  is  referred  to 
Titchener's  "Text  Book  of  Psychology,"  pp.  499  ff. 


174  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

render  to  the  situation,  uncritical  and  unreserved.  Sentiment 
usually  involves  less  intense  feeling,  and  is  deliberative,  call- 
ing for  an  exercise  of  judgment.  We  do  not  only  experience 
the  gratification  which  comes  from  the  mere  reading  or  con- 
templation, losing  ourselves  in  it.  We  do  not,  as  in  emotion, 
merely  feel  because  of  its  beauty  or  truth,  but  we  feel  that  it 
is  beautiful  or  true.  Emotion  in  its  lower  forms  is  not  of 
educational  value.  It  is  only  with  its  development  into  sen- 
timent, involving  intelligent  judgment  and  its  attendant  feel- 
ing, that  the  work  of  instruction  concerns  itself,  in  what  we 
have  called  the  appreciation  mode. 

Aim  of  Appreciation  Instruction. — What  is  the  aim  of 
appreciation  instruction?  To  say  that  it  is  to  make  the  stu- 
dent feel  is  evidently  not  enough.  In  sentiment,  the  feeling 
necessarily  accompanies  a  judgment.  When  we  judge  a 
given  situation  to  be  beautiful  or  good  or  true,  the  judgment 
has  a  strong  feeling  tone;  it  is  decidedly  pleasant.  We  say 
that  we  appreciate  it.  To  train  the  student  thus  to  respond, 
to  correctly  judge  and  to  judge  feelingly,  is  what  appreciation 
instruction  seeks  to  accomplish. 

How  can  we  know  that  the  judgment  upon  which  the 
student's  appreciation  is  based  is  correct?  What  constitutes 
this  correctness  of  judgment?  It  is  here  that  the  personal 
factor  enters.  In  matters  of  fact,  such  as  dominate  the  prob- 
lematic mode,  correctness  implies  agreement  with  an  exter- 
nally determined  situation.  Either  the  stone  falls  sixteen 
feet  in  one  second  or  it  does  not.  Either  the  battle  of  Gettys- 
burg occurred  in  1863  or  it  did  not.  Thus,  the  student's  per- 
sonal attitude  toward  the  situation  is  to  be  ignored  in  the 
judgment  of  facts.  In  the  case  of  appreciation  it  is  funda- 
mentally different.  Here  the  judgment  is  not  one  of  fact 
but  one  of  value.  The  very  essence  of  sentiment  is  the  per- 
sonal character  of  the  response.  The  present-day  theory  of 
sentiment,  known  as  the  doctrine  of  empathy,  is  that  our 
responses  to  situations  are  determined  by  the  injection  of  our- 
selves into  them,  the  interpreting  of  them  hi  terms  of  our  own 


THE  APPRECIATION  MODE  175 

experience  and  feeling.  It  follows  from  this  that  no  two  per- 
sons will  derive  the  same  sentimental  experience  from  a  given 
situation,  for  the  critical  judgment  is  in  terms  of  the  person's 
own  self,  with  its  individual  experiences  and  feeling  attitudes. 

Appreciation  instruction  is  not  for  the  purpose  of  substi- 
tuting for  the  student's  sentiment  the  sentiment  of  author,  or 
artist,  or  even  of  teacher.  Sentimental  responses  are  not 
given,  but  arise  from  situations,  and  any  attempt  to  dictate 
a  sentimental  response  thwarts  its  own  end  by  depriving  it  of 
its  fundamental  personal  character.  However,  in  the  study 
of  a  work  of  art,  such  as  a  painting,  poem,  or  novel,  much  of 
the  artist's  skill  consists  in  presenting  the  situation  not  merely 
as  it  is,  photograph- like,  but  as  he  sees  it  and  experiences  it, 
colored  by  his  own  response  to  it.  In  such  cases  it  is  but 
natural  that  in  the  main  the  student's  response  should  be 
similar  to  that  of  the  artist  or  author.  Thus  there  is  a  unity 
of  response  between  student  and  author,  and  the  former  is 
inspired  to  rise  toward  if  not  to  the  level  of  the  author's 
experience,  with  all  the  aesthetic  and  ethical  benefit  to  be 
derived  from  so  doing.  At  the  same  time,  the  filling  in  of  the 
detail  out  of  the  student's  own  life  experience  and  personality 
serves  to  make  the  whole  really  his  own,  even  though  at  a 
higher  level  than  he  could  have  attained  independently. 

Can  appreciation  be  taught?  The  question  has  received 
various  answers,  either  frankly  stated  or  more  or  less  clearly 
implied.  The  literary  man,  thinking  perhaps  of  instruction 
as  a  mechanical  inpouring  of  information,  declares  that  ap- 
preciation cannot  be  taught.  The  writer  on  education,  per- 
haps because  he  realizes  the  difficulty,  perhaps  because  his 
attention  is  given  more  to  the  intellectual  aspects  of  study, 
has  little  or  nothing  to  say  on  the  subject.  The  writer  feels 
that  here,  as  elsewhere,  method  can  be  employed,  but  that 
here,  as  elsewhere,  the  determining  factor  in  instruction  is 
the  student's  own  activity,  and  that  with  intelligent,  sym- 
pathetic procedure  appreciation  can  be  secured  even  though 
the  procedure  be  difficult  and  exacting.  Appreciation  as  a 


176  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

fixed  response  to  a  given  situation  is  impossible,  for  its  essence 
is  its  spontaneity.  However,  there  is  every  reason  why  the 
teacher  should  lead  the  student  to  a  better,  richer  understand- 
ing and  interpretation  of  the  situation,  and  to  a  response 
thereto,  whether  that  response  be  intellectual  or  sentimental 
or  both.  It  is  in  this  sense  of  the  term  that  appreciation  can 
be  taught. 

2.    TYPES  AND  FORMS  OF  APPRECIATION 

The  Three  Types. — Appreciation  as  a  factor  in  secondary 
school  instruction  naturally  falls  into  three  types,  following 
the  three  traditional  types  of  sentiment:  the  intellectual,  the 
aesthetic,  and  the  ethical.  Consciously  or  unconsciously,  our 
critical  judgment  is  in  terms  of  the  true,  the  beautiful,  and  the 
good,  even  though  sharp  lines  of  distinction  between  these 
are  hard  to  draw  and  are  for  our  purpose  unessential.  A 
given  situation  may  appeal  to  us  because  of  both  its  truth 
and  its  beauty.  The  story  may  attract  us  because  we  realize 
that  it  is  true  to  life,  harmonious  in  its  thought,  and  inspiring 
to  moral  conduct.  Instruction  may  lead  the  student  to  so 
interpret  the  situation  as  to  discover  and  feel  its  truth,  its 
beauty,  its  ethical  character. 

Appreciation  in  the  High  School  Curriculum. — With  the 
increasing  recognition  of  the  fact  that  much  of  the  content 
of  the  high  school  curriculum  has  but  little  practical  knowl- 
edge value,  there  has  grown  up  a  disposition  to  discover  as 
its  supplement  an  appreciation  value.  Teachers  of  mathe- 
matics, science,  and  history  are  advocating  the  study  of  their 
respective  subjects  for  the  sake  of  the  sentiment  therein  con- 
tained, thus  sharing  with  literary  study  in  the  appreciation 
aim,  though  the  place  assigned  it  is  necessarily  subordinate.1 

1  Young,  "The  Teaching  of  Mathematics,"  pp.  43-44;  Lloyd  and 
Bigelow,  "The  Teaching  of  Biology,"  pp.  253  jf.;  Bourne,  "The  Teaching 
of  History,"  pp.  99  ff.\  Smith  and  Hall,  "The  Teaching  of  Physics  and 
Chemistry,"  pp.  12-13. 


THE  APPRECIATION  MODE  177 

Students  are  to  be  taught  not  merely  to  know  the  truth  but 
to  love  it  as  truth;  not  merely  to  know  about  beautiful  things 
but  to  see  and  feel  the  beauty  in  them. 

Naturally  the  secondary  school  subject  in  which  appre- 
ciation is  the  prominent  and  even  the  primary  aim  is  the 
study  of  literature.  Literature  has  long  been  viewed  as  the 
appreciation  subject  par  excellence,  and  our  study  of  the 
principles  of  appreciation  will  necessarily  have  peculiar  refer- 
ence to  it.  With  it,  the  sentiment  is  the  chief  element  in  the 
student's  response,  for  its  situations  are  essentially  sentimen- 
tal in  character.  Accordingly  the  appreciation  mode  of  in- 
struction will  be  for  it  the  prevailing  mode,  though  applicable 
hi  the  other  fields  of  learning  in  so  far  as  sentimental  as  well 
as  intellectual  response  is  sought.  The  study  of  English  com- 
position is  a  helpful  means  to  the  training  of  appreciation 
in  that  the  understanding  of  technic  involved  renders  the 
aesthetic  judgment  of  literature  more  intelligent  and  sensitive. 
At  the  same  time  it  stimulates  and  cultivates  the  imagination, 
thereby  rendering  sympathy  with  the  imaginative  in  literature 
the  more  possible. 

3.    PROCEDURE  IN  THE  APPRECIATION  MODE 

The  sentimental  response  is  largely  determined  by  the 
situation  which  occasions  it.  It  is  no  violation  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  foregoing  paragraphs  to  say  that  the  method  of 
securing  any  type  of  response  is  to  present  to  the  individual 
a  situation  such  as  will  induce  in  him  the  response  in  question. 
This  is  the  foundation  stone  of  the  appreciation  mode  of 
instruction. 

The  essential  in  instruction,  in  appreciation  mode  as  well 
as  in  problematic,  is  the  inciting  of  the  student's  self-activity. 
The  task  of  the  instructor  is  so  to  develop  the  situation  that 
the  students  will  respond  in  the  best  way  and  to  the  best  de- 
gree, and  it  is  in  the  ability  so  to  develop  situations  that  the 
success  of  the  teacher  of  literature  largely  consists.  The  fol- 


178  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

lowing  suggestions  for  appreciation  instruction  are  but  state- 
ments of  the  principles  which  hold  in  this  development. 

1.  Appreciation  by  the  Teacher. — The  teacher  must  him- 
self catch  the  spirit  of  the  situation.     He  must  be  full  of  it; 
so  full  that  he  feels  an  eagerness  to  share  it  with  others  in 
whom  he  is  interested.     The  importance  of  this  lies  partly 
in  the  fact  that  only  under  these  conditions  can  he  himself 
appreciate  deeply  and  catch  the  force  of  the  situation.     If  he 
seeks  aesthetic  appreciation,  he  must  himself  be  alive  to  the 
beauty  he  would  bring  to  the  class.     If  he  wishes  to  impress 
his  pupils  with  the  exactness  of  scientific  truth,  or  with  the 
moral  lesson  of  an  event  in  history  or  fiction,  he  must  himself 
feel  as  well  as  recognize  these  qualities.     Moreover,  the  mood 
of  the  teacher  is  largely  determinative  of  the  mood  of  the 
class,  and  the  mood  with  which  a  class  meet  an  appreciation 
situation  affects  greatly  the  response  to  that  situation.     For 
the  teacher  of  an  appreciation  subject,  such  as  literature,  a 
personal    relation    of    sympathy    and    friendliness    between 
teacher  and  class  both  in  and  out  of  the  classroom  is  in  a 
peculiar  way  an  invaluable  asset  for  the  securing  of  effects  in 
the  class  instruction. 

2.  Realness  of  Situation. — A  vital,  perhaps  the  most  vital, 
requirement  is  that  the  appreciation  situation  shall  be  made 
as  real  and  vivid  to  the  class  as  possible.    The  poem  of  "  Enoch 
Arden"  can  best  be  studied  when  the  students  have  in  imagina- 
tion seen  the  background  and  the  characters  of  the  story  and 
the  scenes  enacted;  and  the  childhood  games  and  youthful 
interest  of  Annie,  Philip,  and  Enoch  are  their  own  lives  recon- 
structed in  the  new  setting.    An  appeal  to  the  student's  own 
experience  will  both  facilitate  the  arousal  of  the  response  to 
the  new  situation  and  deepen  the  impression  made,  involving 
a  comparison  and  providing  the  basis  for  a  generalization 
when  one  is  sought.     Especially  for  the  high  school  student 
it  is  well  first  to  paint  the  sensory  imagery,  calling  attention 
to  the  images  of  sight,  sound,  and  movement  in  so  far  as  the 
nature  of  the  subject  permits.     Pictures  are  here  of  value 


THE  APPRECIATION  MODE  179 

when  well  selected  and  wisely  used.  They  need  not  be  pic- 
tures intended  for  the  purpose;  indeed,  such  pictures  often 
leave  too  little  for  the  spontaneity  of  the  student's  imagina- 
tion. The  students  may  profitably  be  called  upon  to  bring 
to  the  class  such  pictures  as  seem  to  them  to  suggest  the 
thought  of  the  passage  under  consideration.  The  picture 
must,  however,  be  used  with  discretion,  since  unessential  and 
even  negative  elements  may  become  prominent  but  undesir- 
able components  of  the  student's  mental  picture. 

In  productive  work,  such  as  English  composition,  the 
same  principle  holds.  One  reason  that  the  essays  and  stories 
of  school  students  are  so  often  mechanical  and  weak  is  the 
lack  of  vividness  of  imagery  with  which  the  v/ork  is  under- 
taken. Just  as  pictures  help  the  elementary  pupil  to  see  the 
thing  he  is  to  write  about,  so  in  the  high  school  a  story  or 
word-picture  demands  vividness  and  realness  in  the  student's 
mind  before  any  worthy  production  can  be  forthcoming. 

The  suggestion  that  the  imagery  be  real  and  vivid  carries 
with  it  a  corresponding  danger.  Realness  and  vividness  must 
not  be  confused  with  completeness  of  detail.  The  object 
sought  in  this  case  is  not  information  but  suggestion,  and  the 
picture  showing  detail  often  indicates  too  much  to  the  imagina- 
tion of  the  student.  This  holds  not  alone  of  the  printed  pic- 
ture but  of  the  word-picture  as  well.  If  it  is  to  be  the  pupil's 
own  response,  one  in  which  the  personal  factor  is  to  function, 
the  best  picture  is  that  in  general  terms  and  broad  outlines, 
the  remainder  being  left  for  the  imagination  of  the  pupil  to 
fill  in.  Appreciation  situations  cannot  and  should  not  mean 
the  same  or  elicit  the  same  response  with  different  persons, 
and  the  instructor  who  even  unwittingly  forces  upon  the  class 
his  own  interpretation  robs  the  class  of  that  for  which  the 
lesson  is  intended.  Sentimentally  as  well  as  intellectually  it 
is  a  violation  of  the  principle  of  student  self-activity. 

After  the  sensory  imagery  of  the  situation  has  been  secured, 
the  idealized  and  abstract  imagination  should  also  be  devel- 
oped. Little  if  any  of  the  appreciation  material  studied  in 


PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

the  high  school  is  solely  for  the  sake  of  the  sensory  imagery, 
but  should  lead  ultimately  to  appreciation  of  the  higher 
order.  It  is  in  this  final  stage  that  the  student  is  ready  to 
take  home  to  himself  the  deeper  sentimental  significance  of 
the  situation.  With  the  background  properly  painted  and 
the  appropriate  atmosphere  created,  the  central  features  of 
the  picture,  for  which  the  other  imagery  was  preparatory, 
can  be  filled  in  with  the  best  and  most  lasting  effect.  Using 
again  the  illustration  of  "Enoch  Arden,"  the  moral  conflict 
and  ultimate  victory  of  Enoch  are  made  more  significant  to 
the  student  after  its  setting  has  been  realized. 

In  securing  this  imagery  the  student  must  not  be  a  passive 
listener  or  reader.  He  must  supplement  from  his  own  imagi- 
nation, and  must  help  in  the  painting  of  the  picture  or  the 
creation  of  the  situation.  Reading  aloud  by  the  student  of 
the  passage  studied  is  often  a  means  for  securing  this  contri- 
bution in  that  the  reading  enables  the  student  to  in  part  paint 
the  picture  himself.  It  need  hardly  be  added  that  the  only 
reading  in  which  this  is  accomplished  is  that  in  which  the 
student  really  makes  the  reading  a  conveyor  of  content  and 
interpretation,  instead  of  being  the  halting,  expressionless 
performance  so  often  tolerated  even  in  the  high  school  class 
in  English.1  A  later  reading  by  the  teacher,  especially  if  ably 
done,  will  assist  in  the  interpretation  by  giving  another,  pre- 
sumably a  more  adequate,  rendering. 

3.  Familiarity  with  Medium  of  Expression. — Closely  re- 
lated to  the  last-named  requirement  is  the  further  one  that 
the  student  be  familiar  with  the  medium  of  expression,  includ- 
ing the  facts,  the  peculiar  idioms  and  words,  and  the  allusions 
employed  by  the  author  in  the  selection  studied.  In  other 
words,  the  student  must  have  an  adequate  "  apperceptive 
mass"  before  the  lesson  can  be  mastered.  In  literature,  and 
especially  in  poetry,  the  medium  of  expression  includes  also 
such  factors  as  literary  style,  rhythm,  and  rhyme.  Of  these, 
the  rhythm  and  rhyme  contribute  to  aesthetic  feeling  in  a 
1  Cf.  Colvin,  "The  Learning  Process,"  p.  125. 


THE   APPRECIATION   MODE  l8l 

more  mechanical  way,  and  are  the  easier  to  study,  while  the 
appeal  of  literary  style  is  of  a  higher  and  more  subtle  type.1 
In  much  the  same  way,  the  study  of  technic  of  the  expression 
of  thought  and  feeling  renders  the  expression  more  effectual, 
as  well  as  capacitates  the  student  for  the  appreciation  of  good 
expression  by  others. 

It  is  here  that  the  study  element  of  appreciation  enters, 
for  a  goodly  part  of  literary  study  consists  in  an  examination 
of  medium  of  expression,  without  which  interpretation  would 
be  impossible.  The  enthusiastic  teacher,  eager  to  secure  the 
appreciation  element  of  the  lesson,  is  often  tempted  to  over- 
look this,  the  foundation  of  the  interpretation.  Rather  than 
fail  to  insure  this  foundation,  the  teacher  should,  before 
seeking  to  secure  the  appreciation,  question  the  class  in  order 
to  make  sure  that  the  medium  of  its  expression  is  clear,  as 
well  as  to  revive  in  consciousness  the  data  which  render  the 
appreciation  possible.  This  suggests  to  us  the  much-debated 
question  whether  the  class  should  undertake  the  analytic 
study  of  a  literary  selection  for  the  first  time  in  the  same 
class  exercise  in  which  the  appreciation  is  undertaken,  or  as 
a  home  assignment  in  preparation  for  the  appreciation  class 
exercise.  Possibly  the  best  plan  is  to  follow  the  former  pro- 
cedure when  the  language  or  content  is  readily  understood, 
and  the  latter  when  a  considerable  degree  of  study  is  a  pre- 
requisite for  the  appreciation. 

But  the  study  of  these  things  is  not  a  study  of  literature 
or  literary  creation.  It  is  not  the  end  but  the  means  to  the 
end,  and  the  too  common  practice  of  permitting  instruction 
in  literature  to  degenerate  into  a  study  of  its  medium  tends 
rather  to  give  the  student  the  notion  that  literature  is  merely 
language.  It  is  like  pulling  the  flower  to  pieces  in  quest  of 
its  beauty,  or  looking  at  the  telescope  instead  of  looking 
through  it.  "Let  the  English  teacher  teach  the  life  that  lies 
beneath  the  word,  and  there  will  be  no  more  occasion  to 

1  Cf.  Judd,  "Psychology  of  High  School  Subjects,"  pp.  184,  194. 


l82  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

complain  of  a  lack  of  aesthetic  appreciation."1  The  author, 
like  the  public  speaker  or  reader,  seeks  to  secure  a  response 
as  directly  as  possible,  and  the  less  attention  is  required  by 
the  medium  of  expression,  the  more  adequate  is  the  expression. 
Excess  of  detail  in  appreciation  instruction  prevents  rather 
than  furthers  appreciation.  Carried  over  into  another  field, 
this  criticism  applies  with  equal  force  to  the  effort  to  make 
the  student  of  Vergil  appreciate  the  beauty  of  his  style  when 
his  unfamiliarity  with  the  language  limits  his  attention  to  the 
mechanical  aspects  of  his  labored  translation.  He  merely 
sees  words  and  phrases,  with  no  opportunity  for  feeling. 
Moreover,  even  when  appreciation  is  really  possible  and 
sought  after,  it  is  not  necessary,  because  of  our  respect  for 
thoroughness,  to  fall  into  pedantry,  and  imagine  that  the 
student  must  know  everything  about  everything  in  the  selec- 
tion. The  ability  to  evaluate  correctly  is  a  quality  of  mind 
invaluable  to  the  teacher  of  literature. 

4.  Understanding  of  Thought. — Higher  than  the  consid- 
eration of  imagery  and  of  medium  of  expression  stands  the 
study  of  the  thought  itself.  Not  merely,  how  does  the 
author  say  it,  but,  what  does  he  say?  To  simply  follow  the 
story  of  a  narrative,  whether  in  literature  or  in  history,  and 
to  treat  it  as  merely  a  series  of  events  is  to  miss  utterly  the 
aim  for  which  its  study  is  intended.  Knowledge  of  how  to 
demonstrate  a  proposition  and  to  trace  the  effect  of  environ- 
ment on  plant  life  is  not  all  that  geometry  and  botany  should 
produce.  Back  of  these  events  and  processes  lies  a  higher 
meaning,  a  truth  or  beauty,  moral  or  intellectual  or  aesthetic, 
which  gives  them  value,  and  in  so  far  as  adapted  to  the 
maturity  of  the  student,  this  meaning  must  be  discovered. 
The  student  in  the  literature  class  who  gets  merely  the  "run 
of  the  story"  is  not  studying  literature. 

To  a  greater  or  less  degree,  there  must  be  an  analysis  of 
the  content,  and  the  points  obvious  enough  for  the  teacher 

1  M.  Catherine  Mahy,  in  "^Esthetic  Appreciation  of  Literature  in  Sec- 
ondary Education,"  School  Review,  December,  1907. 


THE   APPRECIATION  MODE  183 

must  be  so  illuminated  as  to  stand  out  for  the  pupil's  notice. 
In  almost  all  of  the  material  studied  in  the  high  school,  not 
excluding  literature,  there  is  an  aim  broader  than  the  under- 
standing and  appreciation  of  the  particular  point  or  selection. 
Merely  the  ability  to  appreciate  "In  Memoriam"  is  not  the 
justification  for  its  study.  Rather,  it  is  treated  as  a  type  of 
literary  production;  the  others  similar  to  it  cannot  all  be 
considered  in  the  classroom  or  school,  but  the  ability  and 
disposition  to  read  them  later  are  to  be  trained.  Recalling 
our  discussion  of  formal  training,1  we  recognize  the  necessity 
of  dwelling  not  upon  the  particular  features  but  the  broader 
meaning  of  the  selection,  its  ideas  and  generalizations,  and  it 
is  of  the  development  of  these  that  the  highest  form  of  lit- 
erary analysis  must  consist. 

The  degree  to  which  such  analytic  study  of  literature 
should  be  carried  naturally  depends  on  many  factors,  such 
as  the  maturity  of  the  class,  their  previous  literary  training, 
and  the  character  of  the  content.  That  it  should  extend  to 
an  understanding  of  the  general  plan  of  the  selection  is  self- 
evident.  That  excessive  analysis  distracts  attention  and 
deadens  appreciation  is  equally  evident.  It  involves  a  fur- 
ther danger  of  reading  into  a  passage  a  meaning  which  is  not 
intended  and  which  detracts  from  rather  than  furthers  the 
student's  personal  reaction.  Quoting  from  Professor  Baker: 
"One  general  principle  seems  to  me  to  cover  all  such  study: 
the  analysis  that  reveals  to  the  pupil  new  meanings  within 
his  power  of  comprehension,  and  new  beauties  within  his 
power  of  appreciation,  while  keeping  true  to  the  spirit  and 
tenor  of  the  literature  as  it  is  known  to  scholars — such  analy- 
sis is  not  only  safe  but  of  the  very  essence  of  good  teaching."2 
Substituting  the  word  "subject"  for  "literature"  in  the  quota- 
tion, the  principle  is  equally  valid  in  every  department  of 
study  whenever  appreciation  is  sought  as  either  primary  or 
secondary  aim. 

*  Cf.  p.  24. 

1  Cf.  Carpenter,  Baker,  and  Scott,  "The  Teaching  of  English,"  p.  281. 


1 84  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

5.  Appeal  of  Situation. — The  appreciation  situation  must 
be  of  a  sort  to  really  act  on  the  student — such  that  he  will 
react  to  it.  One  of  the  prime  considerations  in  the  selection 
of  material  for  the  class  in  literature  is  the  appeal  which  it 
will  make  to  the  student,  and  that  whose  intellectual  or  senti- 
mental plane  transcends  the  reach  of  the  high  school  pupil 
has  no  place  in  the  secondary  school  curriculum.  In  the 
same  way,  the  appreciation  of  the  beauty  or  truth  of  a  scien- 
tific principle  or  process  may  be  possible  only  for  the  trained 
adult,  and  quite  meaningless  for  the  inexperienced  youth. 
But,  granting  the  appropriateness  of  the  content,  its  presen- 
tation to  the  pupil  is  equally  important.  The  teacher  must, 
by  discussion,  exposition,  and  questioning,  lead  the  student 
to  a  real  reaction.  The  sentimental  element  must  be  made 
subjective  and  personal.  The  student  must,  consciously  or 
perhaps  unconsciously,  ask  himself  the  question,  What  do  / 
think,  how  do  /  feel  in  this  matter?  Without  this,  it  is  not 
appreciation  but  examination,  not  studying  literature  but 
studying  about  it.  The  situation  must  be  brought  home  to 
the  student  as  his  own  experience.  He  must  feel  that  the 
mathematical  demonstration,  the  scientific  truth,  the  moral 
lesson,  or  the  sentiment  in  his  composition,  is  really  his,  and 
that  he  has  made  it  his  either  by  discovering  or  by  adopting 
it.  Otherwise  his  attitude  will  be  merely  intellectual  and  not 
appreciative.  One  of  the  chief  purposes  in  literary  study  is 
to  secure  sympathetic  feeling,  yet  this  can  never  be  accom- 
plished without  the  personal  response  in  the  face  of  the  situa- 
tion. The  pupil  is  to  be  led  to  relive  the  experience  of  the  au- 
thor; not  actually,  it  is  true,  but  ideally.  The  effect  upon 
character-development  of  thus  ideally  living  the  experiences 
of  noble  souls,  in  sharing  in  a  measure  their  emotions  and  im- 
pulses, of  feeling  as  they  felt,  is  more  than  one  might  imagine. 
The  sharing  of  worthy  motives  and  decisions,  even  in  imagina- 
tion, has  a  positive  moral-training  value  too  great  to  be  neg- 
lected. 

Possibly  the  most  baneful  influence  in  appreciation  proce- 


THE   APPRECIATION   MODE  185 

dure  is  that  of  pettiness.  The  appeal  to  the  student  is  based 
on  the  worth  of  the  object  of  appreciation,  and  when  a  teacher 
expresses  enthusiasm  over  that  which  to  the  student  is  un- 
worthy or  trifling,  the  mood  of  disgust  aroused  will  prove 
fatal  for  the  subsequent  appreciation  even  of  the  worthy.  In 
the  same  way,  the  teacher  who  "gushes"  over  a  literary  selec- 
tion, whose  effort  to  induce  the  student's  enthusiasm  takes 
the  form  of  a  mere  declaration  that  the  selection  is  worthy, 
does  not  thereby  lead  the  thoughtful  student  to  the  same 
enthusiasm.  "Isn't  that  beautiful!"  " Don't  you  think  this 
a  beautiful  passage?"  and  "You  can't  help  admiring  Enoch 
Arden,  can  you?"  will  lead  to  no  valuable  results  unless  the 
student  sees  for  himself  that  the  teacher's  declarations  are 
justified,  and  in  the  latter  case  they  are  often  superfluous. 
Omit  the  intelligent  basis  for  appreciation  and  it  becomes 
mere  emotion. 

6.  Classroom  Atmosphere. — The  atmosphere  of  the  class- 
room doubtless  plays  a  larger  part  in  the  appreciation  mode 
than  in  any  other  form  of  instruction.  Control  of  sentiment  is 
far  more  difficult  than  control  of  thought,  and  conditions  in  the 
midst  of  which  the  student  could  force  himself  to  intellectual 
activity  may  well  be  such  as  to  preclude  sentimental  apprecia- 
tion. To  the  securing  of  a  favorable  mood,  the  whole  environ- 
ment contributes  in  greater  or  less  degree  and  in  various  ways. 
The  tempo  of  the  class  exercise  is  especially  important. 
While  in  general  the  tempo  in  appreciation  instruction  should 
be  somewhat  slow,  possibly  because  time  is  required  for  ideas 
to  arouse  their  sentimental  response,  the  movement  must 
after  all  be  determined  by  the  thought,  not  merely  expressed 
but  unexpressed  as  well.  Interruptions  in  appreciation  are 
especially  to  be  avoided,  partly  because  of  the  impatience  of 
mood  occasioned,  still  more  because  feeling  follows  directly 
from  situations,  and  when  interrupted  is  very  likely  to  be 
lost  or  at  least  weakened  and  altered  as  a  result. 


l86  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

4.    SUMMARY 

Sentiment,  upon  which  appreciation  is  based,  cannot  be 
directly  imparted  by  instruction,  but  can  be  induced  by  the 
supplying  of  suitable  situations. 

Appreciation,  like  sentiment,  is  either  intellectual,  aesthetic, 
or  ethical. 

The  conditions  essential  to  appreciation  instruction  are  a 
sympathetic  instructor,  a  real  situation,  a  familiar  medium  of 
expression,  an  understanding  of  the  thought,  a  situation 
which-  appeals  to  the  student,  and  a  favorable  classroom 
atmosphere. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  In  general,  judgment  is  based  upon  knowledge  and  experience. 
For  example,  judgments  of  distance,  of  value,  and  of  methods  of  pro- 
cedure.    Is  this  true  of  the  judgments  upon  which  sentiment  is  based  ? 
What  does  your  answer  imply  as  regards  the  possibility  of  teaching 
pupils  to  appreciate? 

2.  Will  training  in  the  appreciation  of  poetry  facilitate  the  appre- 
ciation of  prose?     Of  painting?     Justify  your  answer.     Suggest  im- 
plications of  your  answer. 

3.  As  ordinarily  taught,  does  the  study  of  geometry  develop  intel- 
lectual or  logical  appreciation?     Suggest  how  it  should  be  taught  in 
order  to  do  so. 

4.  What  type  or  types  of  appreciation  should  the  study  of  botany 
develop  ? 

5.  Suggest  ways  in  which  the  teacher  of  literature  may  increasingly 
"catch  the  spirit  of  the  situation"  upon  which  the  appreciation  lesson 
is  to  be  based. 

6.  Is  a  strong  power  of  imagination  essential  for  the  successful 
student  of  literature? 

7.  In  the  appreciation  element  in  English  composition,  just  what 
does  the  student  appreciate?    His  own  thought  and  style?    The  ob- 
ject of  which  he  writes?    Thus,  in  describing  a  landscape,  which  does 
he  appreciate:  the  landscape  or  his  description  of  it? 

8.  What  types  of  appreciation  have  most  appeal  for  high  school 
boys?     For  high  school  girls?     Can  you  suggest  an  explanation  for 
these  differences? 


THE  APPRECIATION  MODE  187 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READINGS 

Titchener,  "Textbook  of  Psychology,"  pp.  498-503. 

Strayer,  "Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process,"  chap.  VH. 

Parker,  "Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools,"  chap.  X. 

Judd,  "Psychology  of  High  School  Subjects,"  chap.  IX. 

Gerson,  "Appreciation:  An  Educational  Aim,"  in  Current  Education, 
September,  1916. 

Carpenter,  Baker,  and  Scott,  "The  Teaching  of  English  in  the  Ele- 
mentary and  the  Secondary  School,"  pp.  278-281. 

Arlo  Bates,  "Talks  on  the  Teaching  of  Literature,"  especially  chap. 
VIII. 

Bolenius,  "Teaching  Literature  in  Grammar  Grades  and  High  School." 

Thomas,  "The  Teaching  of  English  in  the  Secondary  School." 


CHAPTER  X 
THE  EXPRESSION-APPLICATION  MODE 

i.    CHARACTER  AND  FUNCTION 

One  need  not  be  a  pragmatist  to  realize  that  the  learning 
and  feeling  of  the  school  instruction  should  lead  to  something 
beyond  learning  and  feeling.  It  is  in  this  uniting  of  intellect, 
feeling,  and  action  as  three  phases  of  a  single  process  that  the 
formation  of  both  moral  and  intellectual  character  consists. 
"No  impression  without  expression"  is  an  old  pedagogical 
maxim  which  recognizes  this  principle.  The  generally  ac- 
cepted fact  that  only  usable  knowledge  is  true  knowledge  ex- 
presses much  the  same  thought. 

Meaning  of  Expression  and  Application. — In  the  develop- 
ment procedure,  both  problematic  and  appreciation,  the  stu- 
dent is  responding  to  a  situation  which  confronts  him  and 
appeals  to  him.  In  both  modes  of  development  the  student's 
aim  is  in  terms  of  the  response  itself,  and  takes  no  account  of 
anything  beyond  it  and  resulting  from  it.  The  thinking  and 
feeling  are  solely  for  the  sake  of  the  thinking  and  the  feeling. 
However,  when  this  response  has  been  aroused  there  follows 
the  further  step,  the  expression-application  procedure,  which 
aims  at  the  extension  of  the  process  beyond  the  bounds  of  the 
person  or  field  in  which  it  originated.  The  student  desires  to 
extend  his  thought  and  feeling  to  persons  other  than  himself, 
and  his  power  to  cases  other  than  that  from  which  it  arose. 
Thus  we  have  the  expression  and  the  application  as  two 
phases  of  the  expansion  and  extension  of  the  intellectual  and 
sentimental  processes,  with  the  expression  laying  emphasis  on 
the  formulation  of  the  thought  or  feeling,  and  the  application 
on  its  use. 

188 


THE  EXPRESSION-APPLICATION  MODE  189 

Educational  Value. — Possibly  the  expression  and  applica- 
tion provide  the  chief  ethical  and  social  values  of  the  class 
exercise.  The  essence  of  moral  and  social  training  lies  in  the 
ability  and  the  disposition  to  employ  the  feeling  and  intellec- 
tual products  for  the  accomplishment  of  further  results.  So 
long  as  teaching  stops  with  knowledge  and  feeling,  culture 
will  be  selfish  and  formal.  Only  when  the  student  has  the 
ability  and  the  disposition  to  share  his  experience  and  to  use 
his  knowledge  will  the  broader  function  of  education  be  real- 
ized. The  expression  of  a  sentiment  usually  carries  with  it 
an  ethical  momentum,  in  that  it  commits  the  individual  to 
its  realization  in  conduct.  A  sentiment  which  does  not  have 
bound  to  it  some  form  of  expression  is  not  educative  but 
harmful,  both  individually  and  socially,  for  it  induces  selfish- 
ness and  deprives  society  of  the  service  which  the  expression 
of  helpful  sentiment  induces. 

It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  sentiment  alone 
is  to  be  expressed  or  knowledge  alone  applied.  What  really 
happens  is  that  both  are  first  expressed  and  then  applied  in 
so  far  as  the  nature  of  each  allows  of  that  expression  and 
application.  The  expressing  and  the  applying  are  so  closely 
related  in  character  that  a  sharp  line  of  separation  cannot  be 
drawn,  the  same  activity  often  serving  as  both  expression 
and  application  at  the  same  time.  In  form,  if  not  in  aim, 
expression  often  involves  application,  just  as  application  may 
be  viewed  as  a  kind  of  expression. 

Apart  from  the  social  and  ethical  implications  of  the 
expression-application  instruction,  there  are  several  consider- 
ations to  be  observed  in  judging  of  its  function  and  value. 
From  the  teacher's  standpoint,  the  expression  and  applica- 
tion serve  as  possibly  the  best  test  of  the  efficacy  of  the 
instruction.  The  method  factor  of  testing  is  thus  applied  in 
the  expression-application  mode,  though  to  a  less  degree  and 
in  a  more  limited  way  than  in  the  recitation  mode.  If  the 
student  can  tell  adequately  what  he  has  learned  and  can  use 
it  readily  and  accurately,  it  is  safe  to  infer  that  the  learning 


190  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

was  adequate.  It  is  too  easy  to  assume  that  when  the  class 
seem  to  understand  and  appreciate  the  lesson,  the  instruction 
process  has  attained  its  goal,  and  the  ability  to  tell  or  use  is 
taken  for  granted. 

A  further  value  to  the  student  of  expressing  his  thought 
and  feeling  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  act  of  expression  involves 
the  formulation,  which  adds  much  to  the  definiteness  and 
depth  of  impression.  Before  he  can  accomplish  much  in  the 
way  of  expression  he  must  bring  his  impression  to  conscious- 
ness and  organize  and  evaluate  his  thought.  From  the  stand- 
point of  linguistic  training,  oral  expression  may  serve,  as 
Professor  Dewey  has  said,  to  enlarge  the  pupil's  vocabulary, 
render  its  terms  more  precise  and  accurate,  and  form  habits  of 
consecutive  discourse.  So,  too,  the  application  or  using  of  his 
knowledge  hi  the  accomplishment  of  his  purpose  provides  the 
flesh  and  blood,  the  vitalizing  element,  without  which  its 
significance  would  be  lost.  The  knowledge  acquired  in  the 
class  exercise  is  at  best  of  an  outline  character,  due  in  part 
to  the  limitations  of  the  student's  experience,  and  needs  the 
filling  in  which  only  a  broader  use  and  application  can  supply. 

A  still  further  value  lies  in  the  skill  which  comes  with  the 
use  of  an  acquired  process  or  capacity.  As  knowledge  should 
lead  to  action,  so  it  should  be  rendered  usable  through  prac- 
tice. One  of  the  most  frequent  complaints  against  much  of 
our  high  school  education  is  that,  although  the  graduate 
knows  many  things,  he  cannot  use  that  knowledge  or  do  the 
things  which  such  knowledge  should  fit  him  to  do.  As  at 
present  organized,  the  typical  secondary  education  offers  far 
less  training  for  "knowing  how"  than  for  "knowing  things" 
or  "knowing  about"  them.  The  element  of  efficiency  should 
be  a  fundamental  one  in  learning. 

2.    FORMS  or  EXPRESSION  AND  APPLICATION 

The  line  of  distinction  between  expression  and  application 
is,  as  we  have  seen,  not  sharply  drawn.  Not  merely  may  the 


THE  EXPRESSION-APPLICATION  MODE  19 1 

same  process  serve  both  functions,  as  expression  and  as  appli- 
cation, but  even  the  two  functions  are  not  always  distinct. 
The  boy  writing  an  essay  is  at  the  same  time  expressing  his 
thought  and  feeling  and  applying  his  knowledge  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  English  composition.  There  are,  however,  certain 
typical  forms  of  expression  and  of  application,  a  study  of 
which  will  assist  in.  bringing  to  the  teacher's  consciousness  the 
function  and  consequent  essentials  of  the  expression  and  ap- 
plication procedure  in  secondary  instruction. 

Forms  of  Expression. — Opportunity  for  student  expression 
occurs  constantly  in  both  recitation  and  development.  When- 
ever the  student  tells  what  he  knows  or  thinks  or  how  he 
feels,  the  activity  is  one  of  expression.  The  restatement  of  a 
rule  formulated  by  the  class,  the  description  of  an  event 
learned  of  in  his  home  study  or  witnessed  by  himself,  the 
explanation  of  a  problem  which  he  has  solved,  and  the  pass- 
ing of  a  judgment  concerning  social,  moral,  or  aesthetic  values, 
all  these  are  but  instances  of  the  many  forms  of  student  ex- 
pression common  in  all  secondary  instruction.  The  answer 
to  a  question  or  even  the  formulation  of  a  question  is  usually 
the  expression  either  of  an  idea  or  of  the  consciousness  of  a 
need.  Viewed  in  this  way,  the  method  factor  of  expression 
permeates  the  entire  student  activity,  and  occurs  through- 
out the  whole  class  exercise,  including  both  lesson  develop- 
ment and  recitation. 

One  of  the  essential  functions  of  the  study  of  English  com- 
position is  that  of  the  expression  of  the  student's  thought  and 
feeling,  a  function  too  often  subordinated  to  its  other  func- 
tion, that  of  application.  What  can  be  more  deadening  for 
thought  than  the  all  too  common  attitude  of  viewing  the 
composition  work  as  essentially  and  primarily  a  formal  drill 
in  the  application  of  linguistic  and  rhetorical  rules,  rendering 
the  study  formal  in  the  extreme?  The  fact  that  language  is 
essentially  a  medium  for  the  expression  of  ideas  and  feelings  is 
being  more  and  more  recognized  in  modern  study,  as  is  shown 
in  the  fact  that  the  cultivation  of  ideas  as  the  basis  for  Eng- 


PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

lish  composition  is  gaining  an  ever  larger  place  in  linguistic 
study.  The  expression  element  in  literary  study  finds  an 
excellent  opportunity  in  the  attention  given  to  more  ade- 
quate oral  reading,  and  in  the  occasional  dramatization  of 
appropriate  pieces  of  literature.  Indeed,  sympathetic  listen- 
ing to  good  reading  and  observing  of  able  dramatization  may 
to  no  small  degree  serve  the  same  end. 

Forms  of  Application. — The  forms  of  application  are  quite 
as  various  as  are  those  of  expression,  and  appear  almost  as 
frequently  in  instruction.  Moreover,  application  is  frequently 
much  more  complex  in  character,  and  accordingly  many  of 
its  forms  occupy  a  large  part  of  the  student's  attention  and 
form  extensive  exercises  for  his  classroom  and  home  study. 
Whenever  he  works  an  example  in  algebra,  tests  for  an  acid 
in  chemistry,  employs  a  method  of  study  in  history,  conven- 
tionalizes a  figure  in  drawing,  or  performs  an  act  because  he 
thinks  it  is  right,  he  is  applying  a  principle  or  principles 
acquired  in  previous  study.  The  writing  of  an  essay  in  Eng- 
lish composition,  although  primarily  an  exercise  in  expres- 
sion, is  none  the  less  an  application  of  the  rules  and  principles 
in  the  employment  of  which  the  student  seeks  proficiency. 
Thus  the  application  serves  to  complete  the  concrete-abstract- 
concrete  movement  of  thought  as  suggested  in  an  earlier 
chapter. 

One  of  the  forms  of  application  which  is  gaining  in  avail- 
ability because  of  its  increased  employment  in  present-day 
teaching  is  that  afforded  by  laboratory  instruction.  Whether 
the  chief  aim  of  the  laboratory  procedure  is  verification  or 
discovery  is  a  question  to  be  treated  in  the  succeeding  chap- 
ter. In  all  its  forms,  however,  whether  the  experimental  or 
the  observational,  in  the  library  or  in  the  field,  the  student  is 
at  almost  every  step  applying  some  principle  of  fact  or  of 
method.  His  manipulation  of  the  galvanometer  is  an  appli- 
cation of  previously  studied  laws  of  the  electric  current. 
The  drawing  of  the  botanical  specimen  involves  his  applica- 
tion of  various  principles  already  acquired.  In  a  similar  way 


THE   EXPRESSION-APPLICATION  MODE  1 93 

laboratory  exercises  in  mathematics,  in  history,  in  English,  all 
involve  the  factor  of  application. 

Whatever  elements  may  be  involved,  application  is  prob- 
ably one  of  the  most  important,  perhaps  the  most  conspicuous 
clement  in  translation  in  the  study  of  foreign  languages. 
Here  the  student  finds  constant  occasion  for  the  employment 
of  the  grammatical  laws  and  rules  of  his  previous  study. 
Each  phrase  and  clause  must  be  interpreted  only  by  means 
of  these  rules  and  laws.  The  forms  of  words,  their  order,  and 
even  their  selection  must  be  justified  by  means  of  principles 
to  which  they  can  be  referred.  Problematic  and  appreciation 
modes  are  frequent  components  of  translation,  yet  their  pres- 
ence does  not  preclude  but  rather  involves  the  application 
mode  as  well. 

Possibly  the  most  common  as  well  as  typical  form  of  appli- 
cation is  that  afforded  in  the  exercises  and  problems  com- 
monly assigned  both  for  classroom  and  for  home  work.  The 
development  of  a  principle  of  method  in  algebra  is  followed 
by  the  assignment  of  a  number  of  "examples"  to  be  worked, 
at  the  board  or  in  the  home  study.  When  the  physics  student 
has  learned  the  law  of  falling  bodies,  he  is  called  upon  to 
compute  a  variety  of  instances  prepared  and  selected  to  in- 
volve that  law.  Having  been  shown  the  method  of  compar- 
ing two  authors  as  to  type  of  imagery,  he  is  assigned  similar 
exercises  for  laboratory  study  in  library  or  the  home.  The 
development  of  the  ablative  absolute  in  the  class  exercise 
is  followed  by  exercises  to  be  prepared  in  which  that  lan- 
guage construction  is  to  be  employed.  A  large  part  of  the 
student's  activity  in  drawing,  manual  training,  domestic 
science  and  art,  and  the  commercial  branches  may  be  classed 
as  application.  Thus,  the  list  of  forms  of  classroom  and 
home  study  exercises,  as  forms  of  application  procedure, 
might  be  extended  through  the  various  studies  of  the  school 
curriculum. 


194  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

3.    HOME  STUDY  AS  APPLICATION 

Mistaken  Conception  of  Home  Study. — The  meaning  and 
function  of  the  assignment  for  home  study  are  perhaps  less 
often  clearly  understood,  even  by  comparatively  good  teach- 
ers, than  is  any  other  part  of  the  instruction  process.  Not 
infrequently  home  preparation  of  lessons  is  interpreted  as  the 
real  learning  activity.  The  student  is  supposed  to  learn  his 
lesson  at  home  in  the  evening,  so  that  he  will  be  able  to  recite 
it  in  school  the  next  day.1  This  is  but  another  phase  of  the 
old  conception  of  the  class  exercise  as  distinctively  and  pri- 
marily a  recitation  exercise.  The  fallacy  of  the  latter  we 
have  endeavored  to  indicate  explicitly  in  the  preceding  chap- 
ters of  this  text.  It  is  hoped  that  the  corresponding  fallacy 
regarding  home  study  has  thereby  been  shown  at  least  im- 
plicitly. 

Earlier  in  our  study  we  saw  that  learning  and  feeling 
occur  only  in  response  to  a  clearly  recognized  situation,  and 
that  it  is  the  teacher's  function  to  bring  this  situation  to  con- 
sciousness and  to  incite  and  guide  the  response  to  it.  In 
other  words,  the  teacher  is  an  essential  in  the  most  effectual 
learning  and  feeling.  In  the  exploration  of  unknown  realms 
of  thought,  the  pupil  is  too  immature,  too  inexperienced  to  be 
an  independent  self-teacher,  even  though  he  must  needs  par- 
ticipate actively  in  the  instruction  process.  Development  is, 
as  we  have  seen,  the  most  effectual  and  satisfactory  method 

1  In  the  Ladies'  Home  Journal  for  January,  1913,  is  given  an  incident 
which  illustrates  strikingly  the  principle  we  have  just  suggested.  A 
widow  came  to  the  superintendent  of  schools  with  the  following  complaint: 
"I  have  four  little  girls  attending  your  schools.  I  am  up  at  five  o'clock 
in  the  morning  to  get  them  off  to  school  and  to  get  myself  off  to  work.  It 
is  six  o'clock  in  the  evening  when  I  reach  home  again,  pretty  well  worn 
out,  and  after  we  have  had  dinner  and  have  tidied  up  the  house  a  bit  it  is 
eight  o'clock.  Then,  tired  as  I  am,  I  sit  down  and  teach  the  little  girls 
the  lessons  your  teachers  will  hear  them  say  over  on  the  following  day. 
Now,  if  it  is  all  the  same  to  you,  it  would  be  a  great  help  and  favor  to  me 
if  you  would  have  your  teachers  teach  the  lessons  during  the  day,  and  then 
all  I  would  have  to  do  at  night  would  be  to  hear  them  say  them  over." 


THE  EXPRESSION-APPLICATION  MODE  195 

of  dealing  with  new  material  in  instruction,  and  the  impossi- 
bility of  development  in  home  study  negates  any  conception 
of  the  latter  as  essentially  the  meeting  of  and  response  to  fun- 
damentally new  situations. 

Relation  to  Class  Exercise. — If,  then,  home  study  is 
neither  preparation  for  recitation  nor  lesson  development, 
what  is  it?  A  possible  reply,  and  one  often  heard  to-day,  is 
that  it  is  superfluous  or  even  positively  harmful.  The  other 
reply,  and  that  on  which  the  present  section  is  based,  is  that 
the  home  study  is  primarily  a  continuation  of  the  class  exer- 
cise procedure,  to  be  carried  on  and  brought  to  completion 
after  the  class  hour  is  over.  "Home  work  should  have  the 
character  of  completing  the  class  work  of  the  previous  day, 
not  of  preparing  for  the  next.  This  will  enable  even  the  slow 
pupil  to  apply  his  time  to  it  with  success  and  profit.  Let  the 
pupil  struggle  with  really  new  work  under  the  supervision  of 
the  teacher,  but  let  home  work  be  preceded  by  enough  similar 
work  in  the  classroom  to  furnish  the  pupil  a  clew  to  prevent 
his  working  in  the  dark.  With  this  new  r61e  assigned  to  the 
home  work  a  change  in  class  methods  should  follow."1  Thus 
its  basis  is  always  in  the  class  exercise  which  preceded  it,  and 
not  in  that  which  is  to  follow.  It  has  a  backward  rather  than 
a  forward  reference.  It  may  mean  the  application  of  the 
principles  or  facts  of  the  class  exercise  to  other  similar  prob- 
lems; or,  since  not  all  new  material  has  to  be  taught  in  the 
classroom,2  it  may  consist  in  the  study  of  new  problems, 
employing  the  methods  of  investigation  acquired  in  class. 
In  either  case,  however,  it  is  an  application  activity,  whether 
of  fact,  of  process,  or  of  method. 

To  the  much-discussed  question,  Is  home  work  justifiable? 
we  are  now  prepared  to  give  an  at  least  relative  answer.  If 
the  application  activity  can  be  so  much  better  completed  in 

1  E.  R.  Breslich,  in  article,  "Supervised  Study  as  Supplementary  In- 
struction," in  Thirteenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of 
Education,  part  I,  p.  70. 

*C/.  p.  118. 


196  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

the  classroom  than  in  the  home  that  it  is  better  to  restrict  it 
to  the  former  entirely,  a  negative  answer  is  implied.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  we  decide  that  the  maturity  of  the  high  school 
student  and  the  brevity  of  the  class  period  are  such  as  to 
render  home  study  more  of  a  gain  than  a  loss,  all  things  con- 
sidered, we  are  rendering  an  affirmative  answer.  The  aim 
and  value  of  home  study  will  receive  more  adequate  consid- 
eration later  (Chapter  XII).  It  will  satisfy  our  present  need 
thus  to  point  out  the  basis  for  the  choice  of  procedures,  and 
indicate  some  of  the  essentials  which  a  home  assignment 
would  involve. 

4.    ESSENTIALS  OF  EXPRESSION  AND  APPLICATION 

Since  the  expression  and  application  procedures  are  the 
final  step  and  in  a  measure  the  climax  of  the  instruction,  their 
significance  in  determining  the  final  form  and  meaning  of 
what  is  learned  and  felt  is  obviously  great.  Feeling  and 
learning  must  culminate  hi  expression  and  application,  or 
their  value  will  largely  disappear.  Naturally  we  determine 
the  essentials  of  good  expression  and  application  by  reference 
to  their  function,  since  a  procedure  is  good  in  proportion  as  it 
adequately  accomplishes  its  aim.  Expression  is  the  transmit- 
ting to  others  of  one's  knowing  and  feeling  experiences.  The 
application  factor  of  instruction  serves  the  general  purpose 
of  bringing  the  abstract  concept  or  formal  principle  down  to 
the  level  of  the  concrete,  converting  ideas  and  ideals  into 
things  and  acts.  In  so  doing,  both  afford  opportunity  for 
testing  the  results  of  the  development  procedure,  and  provide 
definiteness  and  completeness  to  what  has  been  learned  and 
felt,  and  skill  in  its  use.  Thus  the  two  partially  coincide  in 
educational  value,  as  they  often  do  in  character.  As  the 
classroom  application  and  the  home  study  differ  somewhat 
in  function,  the  latter  being  an  expansion  of  the  former  and 
under  the  student's  own  initiative  and  guidance,  the  require- 
ments of  the  two  will  only  partially  coincide. 


THE  EXPRESSION- APPLICATION  MODE  197 

1.  Adequacy. — Expression  shall  be  adequate,  both  in  form 
and  in  content.     Because  of  its  value  for  linguistic  training, 
whether  oral  or  written,  care  should  be  taken  not  merely  that 
the  expression  be  in  good  English  but  that  the  language  be 
so  chosen  as  to  convey  the  correct  meaning.     Care  in  the 
construction  of  sentences,  as  well  as  in  the  selection  of  exact 
terms,  is  essential  if  expression  is  to  realize  its  possibilities 
for  linguistic  training.     The  requirement  that  the  content  be 
adequately  expressed  follows  naturally  from  its  value  for  the 
rendering  of  thought  and  feeling  definite.     Nothing  will  so 
effectually  clarify  and  organize  mental  experiences  as  will 
their  expression,  involving  as  it  does  their  elevation  to  con- 
sciousness and  their  arrangement  and  formulation  for  another 
person's  interpretation.     Training  in  expression  must  train 
the  pupil  to  think  of  what  he  says  in  terms  of  the  hearer  or 
reader. 

2.  Genuineness. — The  expression  shall  be  genuine.     The 
student's  reporting  as  his  own  an  experience  which  he  has 
not  had  occasions  harm  to  himself  and  mistaken  belief  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher.     He  may,  by  a  clever  or  lucky  combina- 
tion of  phrases,  get  credit  for  the  idea  desired,  though  the 
idea  itself  be  imperfectly  understood  or  wholly  lacking.     He 
may  for  any  of  several  reasons  seemingly  express  a  certain 
sentiment  which  he  does  not  really  feel.     Intellectual  insin- 
cerity may  not  be  wholly  the  pupil's  fault,  but  may  result  in 
large  measure  from  overpressure  by  the  teacher,  or  even  from 
the  student's  conscientiousness.     Under  the  necessity  of  say- 
ing something  appropriate,  he  says  what  he  thinks  is  wanted, 
even  perhaps  imagining  he  knows  or  feels  what  he  is  endeav- 
oring to  express.     The  teacher's  most  adequate  remedy  seems 
to  be  to  follow  up  the  statements  with  questioning,  and  to 
manifest  and  emphasize  a  higher  evaluation  of  truth  than  of 
appropriate  answers. 

3.  Immediacy. — The  application  in  the  classroom  should 
follow  immediately  after  the  principle  has  been  developed. 
An  abstraction  which  does  not  have  its  concrete  application 


198  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

closely  bound  to  it  will  soon  disappear.  The  significance  of  a 
concept  is  intelligible  only  in  terms  of  its  relation  to  the  con- 
crete world  of  the  student's  experience,  and  either  the  two 
must  be  present  simultaneously  in  the  student's  conscious- 
ness or  they  will  fail  to  be  properly  associated  and  identified. 
When  the  student  has  come  to  understand  the  binomial 
theorem,  he  should  then  and  there  raise  a  number  of  binomials 
to  higher  powers.  When  he  has  learned  the  method  of  conju- 
gating a  Latin  verb,  he  should  be  called  upon  to  conjugate 
other  similar  verbs.  The  development  of  the  principle  of 
capillary  attraction  should  be  promptly  followed  by  its  appli- 
cation to  phenomena  involving  it.  After  the  class  is  shown 
the  method  and  view-point  of  the  interpretation  of  a  literary 
selection  or  a  historical  period,  opportunity  should  be  pro- 
vided for  the  further  interpretation  with  this  newly  acquired 
method  and  view-point.  In  foreign  language  study,  writing 
from  dictation,  which  is  itself  a  form  of  application,  should 
at  once  be  followed  by  correction  of  the  work  done,  so  that 
the  correct  form  rather  than  the  incorrect  may  become  the 
permanent  possession  of  the  pupil. 

Herbartian  pedagogy  collects  the  entire  application  ac- 
tivity into  a  distinct  step,  called  the  Application  step,  and 
naturally  places  it  at  the  end  of  the  class  exercise.  That  the 
class  exercise  may  very  profitably  close  with  a  good  degree 
of  application  is  an  evident  and  important  consideration  in 
secondary  instruction.  There  it  may  well  serve  as  a  unifying 
procedure,  showing  the  relation  between  seemingly  discon- 
nected ideas  through  their  bearing  upon  common  problems 
and  situations.  There  are  many  times,  however,  when  an 
at  least  partial  application  of  a  point  may  best  be  made 
immediately  upon  its  presentation,  mingling  the  development 
and  application  factors  in  instruction.  In  such  cases,  which 
in  secondary  instruction  are  especially  common,  a  further  dis- 
tinct application  procedure  at  the  close  of  the  hour  is  by  no 
means  precluded  but  rather  is  frequently  desirable. 

4.  Typicality. — The  application  should  be  typical.  The 
lesson  development  is  necessarily  restricted  in  the  range  of 


THE  EXPRESSION- APPLICATION  MODE  1 99 

cases  studied,  most  of  the  emphasis  being  laid  on  a  single  rep- 
resentative instance.  In  applying  a  principle,  therefore,  its 
range  should  be  extended,  in  order  that  the  various  forms  in 
which  the  central  thought  is  found  may  be  such  as  to  at  least 
indicate  the  scope  of  its  validity.  Though  the  abstract  prin- 
ciple takes  a  single  formulation,  its  concrete  forms  are  neces- 
sarily various.  When  the  student  has  learned  that  the  dif- 
ference of  two  squares  factors  into  the  sum  and  difference  of 
the  numbers,  he  should  apply  the  law  to  a  variety  of  forms  of 
the  problem:  e.  g.,  az  —  b4,  x2  —  4,  4**  —  i,  40*  -  9^,  a2  -  bz 
—  2bc  —  cz,  etc.  Having  observed  the  general  effects  of 
wave  erosion,  he  should  apply  the  principle  to  a  number  of 
cases  which  represent  the  different  types  of  situation  in  which 
it  is  involved.  Evidently  these  should  be  progressively  com- 
plex, so  that  each  involves  an  advance  and  development  out 
of  the  preceding,  in  accordance  with  the  suggestion  already 
made:  "Proceed  from  the  simple  to  the  complex."  The  am- 
bitious teacher  is  in  danger  of  endeavoring  to  develop  the 
student's  ability  to  apply  his  new-found  knowledge  by  giv- 
ing him  too  large  a  proportion  of  difficult  problems.  The 
student  must  first  "find  himself"  in  problems  within  his 
grasp,  and  then  gradually  advance  to  more  difficult  ones. 
Often  a  multitude  of  easy  applications  of  a  principle  to  cases 
arising  from  actual  experience  will  do  more  to  secure  readi- 
ness in  its  use  than  a  small  number  of  difficult  ones. 

The  home  study  exercise  should,  like  the  classroom  appli- 
cation, be  typical.  The  chief  difference  would  lie  in  the  fact 
that  whereas  the  latter  for  want  of  time  merely  introduces 
the  student  to  each  type,  home  study  involves  more  extended 
drill  or  detailed  investigation  upon  a  number  of  cases  under 
each  type.  The  work  of  the  class  exercise  is  thus  adapted  to 
procedure  under  guidance;  the  home  study  demands  rather 
the  initiative  and  self-reliance  of  the  student  working  alone. 
This  is  not  to  imply  that  the  home  study  shall  not  introduce 
the  student  to  anything  new.  It  means,  rather,  that  it  shall 
deal  with  material  or  problems  to  which  the  lesson  hour  has 
introduced  him  and  for  whose  study  it  has  prepared  him. 


200  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

It  is  just  this  procedure  from  what  has  been  studied  to  its 
further  implications  and  applications  which  constitutes  true 
progress,  and  such  progress  as  this  is  to  characterize  both  the 
classroom  application  and  the  home  study  exercise. 

5.  Significance. — The    application    shall    be    intelligent. 
When  the  student  seeks  to  apply  a  method  of  procedure,  he 
must  know  not  merely  the  how  but  the  why.    He  must  be 
conscious  of  the  aim  of  the  procedure,  and  must  see  that  the 
method  employed  is  really  the  appropriate  one  for  the  realiza- 
tion of  that  aim.     Too  often  the  so-called  application  activity 
of  the  high  school  pupil  is  mere  imitation.     He  sees  how  the 
teacher  performs  the  operation,  and  when  called  upon  repeats 
the  process  mechanically,  indifferent  to  its  justification.    A 
fundamental  aim  in  education  is  the  training  of  the  student 
intelligently  to  meet  situations  in  life  by  adaptation  of  means 
to  end.     Not  merely  does  the  mechanical  application  fail  to 
fit  the  student  for  the  meeting  of  the  specific  intellectual  situ- 
ation under  consideration,  but  it  inculcates  the  mental  atti- 
tude and  habit  of  unintelligent  imitation  in  all  activities  of 
life.     This  is  clearly  a  failure  to  develop  initiative;  a  viola- 
tion of  the  principle  of  student  self-activity. 

Application  is  not  intelligent  unless  the  student  appreci- 
ates the  character  of  the  end  sought,  and  realizes  that  his 
efforts  are  at  least  an  approximation  to  that  end.  A  certain 
degree  of  conscious  success  is  necessary  for  profitable  effort, 
especially  with  younger  people.  In  the  study  of  a  foreign 
language  an  attempt  to  translate  into  the  new  language 
before  one  is  sufficiently  advanced  leads  to  an  artificiality  of 
product  which  is  distasteful  to  the  student  and  at  the  same 
time  induces  bad  habits  which  negate  any  benefit  otherwise 
derived  from  the  exercise. 

6.  Universality. — The  application    activity  of  the   class 
exercise  should  be  general.    It  is  not  enough  that  one  student 
should  make  the  application  and  the  rest  of  the  class  render 
intellectual  assent  and  approval.     The  testing  aim  of  the 
application  procedure  is  evidently  defeated  thereby;  much 


more,  the  aims 

In  so  far  as  possible,  every  member  of  the  class  should  himself 
make  the  applications,  as  intensively  and  extensively  as  the 
conditions  of  the  class  exercise  permit.  It  is  here  that  the 
use  of  the  blackboard  is  of  especial  service,  and  the  teacher 
may  well  so  plan  the  lesson  as  to  make  provision  for  its  use 
in  so  far  as  the  character  of  the  work  permits.  When  but 
part  of  the  class  can  work  at  the  board,  seat  work  can  be 
utilized  for  the  remainder,  although  the  inconvenience  of  its 
employment  for  class  discussion  and  criticism  is  a  serious 
disadvantage. 

The  requirement  that  application  shall  be  general,  how- 
ever, does  not  mean  that  every  student  shall,  either  orally 
or  in  writing,  make  every  application  demanded  of  the  class. 
As  was  suggested  in  the  discussion  of  the  question,  the  stu- 
dent who  conscientiously  and  fully  follows  through  the 
thought  of  his  fellow  student's  application,  comparing  it  with 
his  own  thought  in  the  matter,  is  in  no  small  degree  making 
a  real  application,  even  though  unexpressed,  and  derives  a 
real  benefit  from  the  recitation  of  every  other  member  of  the 
class. 

5.    THE  LESSON  ASSIGNMENT 

Relation  to  Class  Work. — In  an  earlier  section  of  this 
chapter  the  function  of  the  home  study  was  seen  to  be  that 
of  an  application  and  amplification  of  the  material  developed 
or  method  employed  in  the  preceding  class  exercise  or  exer- 
cises. Incidentally,  this  naturally  implies  that  it  is  usually 
to  form  the  basis  for  the  recitation  procedure  of  the  class 
hour,  and  in  a  manner  to  thus  serve  as  a  propaedeutic  for  the 
subsequent  lesson  development,  thus  completing  the  cycle 
and  constituting  the  unity  of  the  instruction  process  from 
day  to  day.  When  home  study  is  eliminated,  it  simply  means 
that  the  application  procedure  of  each  class  exercise  is  so 
extended  and  so  organized  as  to  include  the  work  usually 

assigned  to  the  home. 

VINHOJIIVO  Weava  VINVS 

393  HUD  S.H3HOV3J.  31V1S 

Aavaan 


2O2  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

This  relation  of  the  home  study  to  the  application  proce- 
dure of  the  previous  class  hour  adds  a  new  importance  to 
application.  Too  often  the  teacher,  pressed  for  time  at  the 
close  of  the  hour,  leaves  all  the  application  work  to  the  home 
study,  with  disastrous  results.  The  first  application  of  a 
newly  encountered  principle  or  method  is  usually  a  source  of 
considerable  difficulty  for  the  student,  and  needs  the  close 
attention  of  the  instructor,  guiding,  adapting,  and  correcting. 
Unless  the  teacher  has  introduced  his  class  to  the  concrete 
implications  of  a  lesson  and  tested  for  the  adequacy  and 
accuracy  of  the  learning,  the  next  class  hour  will  very  often 
disclose  results  which  are  valueless  or  even  of  negative  value. 
At  the  same  time,  one  of  the  chief  aims  of  home  study  is  to 
develop  initiative,  and  the  classroom  application  fails  if  it 
does  not  train  the  pupil  to  do  hard  things,  to  master  difficult 
problems  independently. 

Time  of  Assignment. — At  what  time  in  the  class  hour 
should  the  lesson  be  assigned?  The  function  of  home  study 
and  its  relation  to  the  application  procedure  naturally  sug- 
gest that  it  should  come  at  the  close  of  the  hour.  Some 
educators,  realizing  its  importance  and  the  great  danger  of 
its  being  slighted  if  left  to  the  close,  have  advocated  for  it  an 
earlier  position:  even  the  first  place  in  the  class  hour  has  been 
accorded  it  by  some  teachers  of  good  standing.  However, 
the  policy  of  doing  a  thing  wrongly  for  fear  of  neglecting  its 
performance  entirely  does  not  appeal  to  us  as  justifiable. 
The  teacher  can  as  truly  reserve  a  place  for  it  at  the  close  of 
the  hour  as  he  can  plan  to  close  the  lesson  at  the  end  of  the 
hour.  On  the  other  hand,  the  arguments  in  favor  of  its  loca- 
tion after  the  application  procedure  are  too  strong  to  ignore. 
The  assignment  of  a  task  is  at  best  vague  and  uninspiring 
when  its  significance  is  not  understood.  An  assignment 
should  not  take  the  form  so  often  found:  "Take  the  next 
three  pages,"  "Work  the  first  ten  problems  on  page  40," 
"Write  an  essay  on  some  topic  which  interests  you."  A 
truly  educative  task  is  one  that  arises  out  of  a  definite  situa- 


THE   EXPRESSION-APPLICATION   MODE  203 

tion  which  is  in  a  general  way  understood  by  the  student 
and  challenges  him  as  a  thing  to  be  done  for  the  meeting  of 
the  situation.  To  assign  the  lesson  before  that  situation  has 
been  developed  prevents  this  interest  because  it  provides  it 
no  foundation.  The  lesson  assigned,  therefore,  must  be  one 
that  makes  a  real  appeal  to  the  student's  interest,  if  any  real 
educational  value  is  to  be  derived  from  it  or  if  the  student  is 
expected  to  put  his  best  efforts  into  its  preparation  when  the 
stimulation  of  the  teacher's  activity  is  not  at  hand.  Such  an 
interest  seems  to  demand  for  the  assignment  the  final  place 
in  the  class  exercise. 

A  modification  rather  than  a  violation  of  the  above  is  the 
plan  of  assigning  the  next  lesson  piecemeal,  by  letting  its 
various  parts  suggest  themselves  from  the  class  discussion 
during  the  lesson  development  or  classroom  application. 
This  practice  is  often  wise,  although  it  demands  a  final  gath- 
ering together,  organization,  and  restatement  of  the  whole  at 
the  close  of  the  hour. 

Definiteness. — A  requirement  closely  related  to  what  we 
have  just  said  is  that  the  assignment  shall  be  definite.  The 
class,  when  told  to  work  upon  a  task  by  themselves,  should 
know  definitely  what  is  expected  of  them.  One  of  the  most 
fertile  causes  of  poor  lesson  preparation  is  indefinite  lesson 
assignment.  Moreover,  the  adult  teacher,  who  has  the  task 
in  mind  before  expressing  it  in  words,  will  consider  clear  what 
is  quite  the  opposite  to  the  immature  student,  who  has  to 
read  the  teacher's  meaning  out  of  his  words.  A  wise  plan  is, 
after  the  assignment  has  been  made  and  opportunity  afforded 
for  questions,  to  ask  for  its  repetition  by  some  student  or 
students,  probably  one  most  likely  to  misunderstand  or  neg- 
lect it.  Definiteness,  however,  means  more  than  clearness. 
A  definite  assignment  is  one  that  has  a  real  purpose;  one 
that  obviously  leads  somewhither.  Intelligent  preparation 
is  possible  only  when  its  aim  is  known  to  the  student  and 
determines  his  procedure.  Otherwise  interest  as  well  as  effi- 
ciency will  be  lost. 


204  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

Motivation. — The  motivation  of  the  assignment  should  be 
internal  rather  than  external.  Its  content  and  form  should 
be  such  as  to  stimulate  to  its  performance,  instead  of  requiring 
external  authority  as  its  incentive.  The  formulation  of  an 
assignment  in  question  form  often  assists  in  securing  this 
stimulation,  for  a  well-formulated  question  is  for  the  student 
a  standing  challenge,  and  its  service  in  the  humanities  is  as 
real  if  not  as  extensive  as  in  the  sciences  and  mathematics. 
"What  similarity  do  you  see  between  the  causes  of  the  Ameri- 
can and  of  the  French  Revolution?"  "See  if  you  can  deter- 
mine the  motive  of  Portia  in  demanding  the  ring  from  An- 
tonio." "Just  what  does  virtus  mean  in  English?"  Prob- 
lems such  as  these  are  fully  as  stimulating  as  the  calculation 
of  the  fall  of  an  imaginary  body  in  a  given  time,  or  the  factor- 
ing of  x7  —  y1.  Such  intellectual  stimulation  in  the  assign- 
ment serves  to  carry  over  interest  from  topic  to  topic  and 
from  lesson  to  lesson,  making  it  progressive  and  unifying  the 
whole  subject,  instead  of  the  atomization  which  daily  assign- 
ment of  new  lessons  tends  to  occasion. 

The  class  exercise  does  not  constitute  the  educative  proc- 
ess but  merely  initiates  it.  The  student  who  has  not  in 
school  received  an  incentive  to  self-education  in  later  years 
is  not  educated.  Similarly,  a  class  exercise  which  does  not 
incite  to  further  thought  and  study  without  the  compulsion 
of  the  teacher's  presence  has  little  educative  value. 

Amount  of  Assignment. — The  efficacy  of  the  stimulant  is 
in  part  determined  by  amount  of  dose.  The  motivation  of 
the  assignment  depends  much  upon  the  degree  of  its  diffi- 
culty. It  must  not  be  such  as  to  save  the  pupil  the  necessity 
for  hard  work,  for  meeting  and  mastering  a  puzzling  situation. 
In  fact,  like  all  of  the  work  required  of  the  pupil,  it  should 
be  all  he  can  do;  no  more,  no  less.  That  is  the  kind  of  lesson 
he  takes  delight  in  mastering.  The  absence  of  the  teacher 
and  the  consciousness  of  being  thrown  upon  his  own  resources 
is  an  excellent  stimulant  for  arousing  the  student's  self- 
activity.  Thus,  the  assignment  should  be  so  selected  and 


THE  EXPRESSION-APPLICATION  MODE  205 

formulated  as  to  develop  initiative  and  self-reliance.  The 
consciousness  that  one  can  and  must  accomplish  a  difficult 
task  is  a  fine  tonic  for  the  development  of  intellectual  and 
moral  muscle. 

6.    SUMMARY 

Expression  and  application  are  the  student's  extension  of 
his  experience  to  persons  other  than  himself  and  to  cases  other 
than  those  from  which  the  experience  was  derived.  Such 
expression  and  application  serve  to  complete  and  vitalize  the 
experience,  to  test  the  efficacy  of  the  instruction,  to  define 
and  deepen  the  impression,  and  to  develop  skill. 

Expression  and  application  occur  in  nearly  every  step  of 
the  instruction,  in  class  exercise,  laboratory,  and  study. 

The  home  study  is  merely  an  extension  of  the  previous 
class  exercise,  not  a  memorizing  for  a  coming  recitation. 

Expression  and  application  should  be  adequate,  genuine, 
immediate,  typical,  intelligent,  and  general. 

The  lesson  assignment  should  grow  out  from  the  develop- 
ment, should  normally  come  at  the  close  of  the  lesson  hour, 
and  should  derive  its  motivation  from  that  of  the  lesson 
developed. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  How  will  it  affect  the  pupil's  attitude  toward  a  subject  if  he 
lack  opportunity  or  capacity  for  self-expression? 

2.  How,  if  he  lack  opportunity  for  the  application  of  what  he 
learns  ? 

3.  Does  teaching  by  lesson  development  add  to  the  opportunity 
for  self-expression  (as  compared  with  mere  home  learning  of  lessons)  ? 

4.  When  a  student  has  turned  in  the  solution  of  an  assigned  prob- 
lem in  mathematics  or  language,  how  can  you  make  sure  that  he  has 
really  applied  a  principle,  and  not  merely  imitated  a  process? 

5.  When  a  pupil  knows  a  thing  adequately  and  clearly,  can  you 
believe  his  protest  that  he  cannot  express  what  he  knows?     What 
might  obstruct  expression  in  such  a  case? 

6.  Can  the  expression  of  a  sentiment  be  really  genuine  when  it 
takes  the  form  of  reading  what  another  has  written? 


2C>6  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

7.  Why  should  not  the  application  of  a  principle  be  deferred  till 
the  day  following  its  development? 

8.  "The  application  activity  of  the  class  exercise  should  be  gen- 
eral."    Why  may  not  all  profit  equally  if  the  application  by  one  pupil 
is  carefully  followed  by  the  others? 

9.  To  what  degree  should  the  class  have  a  share  in  determining 
the  assignment  of  the  lesson  for  home  study  ?     Give  reasons. 

10.  What  attention  should  the  teacher  give  to  pupils'  protest  that 
assignments  are  too  long  or  too  difficult? 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READINGS 

De  Garmo,  "Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  Processes  of  Instruc- 
tion," chap.  VII. 

Parker,  "Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools,"  chap.  XI. 

Betts,  "The  Recitation,"  chap.  V. 

Carpenter,  Baker,  and  Scott,  "The  Teaching  of  English  in  the  Ele- 
mentary and  the  Secondary  School,"  chap.  VI. 

Wilkins,  "Spanish  in  the  High  Schools,"  pp.  186-189. 


V 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  LABORATORY  MODE 

i.     CHARACTER  AND  FUNCTION 

Scope. — We  are  largely  indebted  to  the  natural  science 
study  in  schools  for  the  recognition  of  the  possibilities  of  the 
laboratory  as  an  element  in  secondary  instruction.  Despite 
the  abuses  which  have  crept  into  the  schools  under  its  name, 
educators  are  more  and  more  coming  to  see  that  the  labora- 
tory procedure  is  applicable  to  most  if  not  all  of  the  high 
school  studies,  and  as  its  function  is  better  understood,  its 
employment  becomes  wider  and  more  effectual.  The  term 
does  not  to-day  necessarily  suggest  test  tubes  and  electro- 
magnets, but  its  use  is  based  upon  a  more  fundamental  char- 
acteristic. It  now  refers  not  to  the  form  of  apparatus  but 
to  the  form  of  thinking  and  learning,  and  accordingly  we  find 
it  employed  in  the  biological  sciences,  in  mathematics,  in 
history,  and  hi  English,  even  though  it  occasionally  bears  a 
different  name  in  certain  fields,  and  hence  often  escapes 
recognition. 

Relation  to  Home  Study. — The  laboratory  resembles  the 
home  study  in  that  the  student  is  to  a  considerable  degree 
thrown  upon  his  own  resources.  The  formal  procedure  of  the 
classroom,  incidental  to  the  simultaneous  activity  of  a  group 
under  class  direction,  is  replaced  with  the  freedom  of  individ- 
ual activity.  On  the  other  hand,  in  place  of  the  independence 
of  the  home  study  there  is,  in  the  high  school  at  least,  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  supervision  by  the  teacher  or  his  assis- 
tants, necessitated  by  the  environment  and  equipment  for 
the  work  as  well  as  by  the  element  of  investigation  involved. 

Relation  to  Development. — Although  like  the  development 
mode  of  instruction  in  dealing  with  situations  and  problems 

207 


208  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

at  least  partially  new,  the  laboratory  mode  differs  from  the 
other  in  most  or  all  of  four  essential  features.  In  the  first 
place,  it  deals  with  problems  whose  data  demand  slower 
development.  For  the  performance  of  many  chemical  or 
physical  experiments,  the  observation  of  geological  forma- 
tions, or  the  investigation  of  a  historical  period,  the  class 
hour  is  far  too  short.  Secondly,  the  data  of  its  problems  are 
usually  less  accessible  for  study.  The  phenomena  of  stream 
erosion  must  be  visited,  or  the  reference  books  must  be  used 
in  the  library.  Thirdly,  its  problems  usually  demand  data 
which  best  lend  themselves  to  individual  rather  than  class 
investigation.  Often  a  scientific  specimen  cannot  be  exam- 
ined by  an  entire  class,  but  must  be  duplicated  for  each 
student  for  close  observation  or  individual  manipulation. 
Finally,  the  treatment  of  its  problems  involves  no  really  new 
method  of  procedure  requiring  a  showing-how,  but  is  the 
concrete  application  of  a  comparatively  familiar  method. 

Relation  to  Application. — Compared  with  the  applica- 
tion mode,  the  laboratory  mode  bears  resemblance  more  in 
form  than  in  educational  character  and  function.  It  usually 
differs  from  the  other  in  two  respects.  The  first  and  most 
frequent  difference  is  that  the  laboratory  involves  the  ele- 
ment of  discovery,  the  intellectual  or  sentimental  interpre- 
tation of  new  truth,  or  the  deriving  of  new  experiences  from 
things.  Otherwise  expressed,  the  application  leads  into, 
the  laboratory  starts  from,  the  concrete.  The  former  uses 
known  principles  in  dealing  with  particular  typical  cases;  the 
latter  investigates  concrete  situations,  and  from  them  derives 
facts  and  experiences  new  to  the  student.  Thus,  in  the 
laboratory  the  student  studies  particular  plant  forms,  and 
derives  general  principles  regarding  the  class  typified  by 
the  specimens  observed.  In  the  appreciation  laboratory 
his  study  of  literary  selections  leads  him  to  a  new  senti- 
mental experience.  Even  when  employed  for  verification 
instead  of  discovery,  the  same  distinction  holds  good,  since 
verification  is  the  completion,  the  culmination  of  discovery, 


THE   LABORATORY   MODE  2OO, 

and  is  therefore  ultimately  for  the  sake  of  knowing  certain 
general  principles  rather  than  their  use  in  any  particular 
case.  The  use  of  the  laboratory  for  the  purpose  of  verifi- 
cation is,  however,  questionable  and  will  receive  treatment  in 
another  paragraph.  A  second  difference,  which  is  solely  one 
of  degree,  not  of  kind,  lies  in  the  greater  tendency  of  the 
laboratory  to  concern  itself  with  actual  objects  and  of  the 
classroom  application  to  deal  with  the  symbols  for  things. 
Applying  in  the  classroom  the  law  of  falling  bodies,  the  stu- 
dent calculates  the  rate  of  imaginary  falls;  in  the  laboratory 
the  body  actually  falls  and  its  rate  is  measured.  This  second 
difference,  if  such  it  deserves  to  be  called,  is  not  fundamental 
but  merely  incidental.  On  the  one  hand,  much  of  the  work 
with  maps  in  physiography  and  with  sources  in  history  is 
truly  laboratory  work  if  employed  as  training  in  the  discovery 
and  interpretation  of  truth,  even  though  its  materials  are 
themselves  representative  and  artificial  rather  than  original.1 
On  the  other  hand,  classroom  application  should  so  far  as 
possible  be  made  to  the  real  rather  than  the  representative, 
and  it  is  largely  its  shorter  period  which  compels  it  often  to 
substitute  the  symbol  for  the  thing  symbolized  as  a  measure 
for  the  economy  of  time. 

Aims  of  Laboratory  Instruction. — The  laboratory  mode  has 
been  found  to  coincide  in  function  and  character  with  neither 
development,  classroom  application,  nor  home  study,  and 
yet  it  overlaps  and  partially  coincides  with  all  three.  Taking 
account  of  what  has  been  said  in  the  preceding  paragraphs, 
we  might  indicate  five  specific  aims  of  laboratory  instruction, 
most  of  which  at  least  are  fundamental  in  every  laboratory 
exercise.  First,  it  is  for  the  sake  of  knowledge,  or  in  some 

1  If  the  source  method  in  history  is  treated  as  a  study  of  a  historical 
event  or  period  through  the  medium  of  the  impressions  and  motives  of  its 
contemporaries,  and  for  the  sake  either  of  a  better  understanding  of  the 
event  or  of  training  in  interpretation,  it  may  well  be  a  laboratory  proce- 
dure as  here  understood.  The  position  here  taken  thus  differs  less  in 
character  than  in  name  from  that  of  Bourne,  in  his  "Teaching  of  History," 
chap.  XI. 


210  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

cases  for  the  sake  of  appreciation.  By  it  the  student  is 
brought  to  a  more  direct  experience  of  situations.  He  comes 
not  merely  to  know  about  things  but  to  know  the  things 
themselves:  he  not  merely  learns  to  appreciate  under  gui- 
dance specially  selected  portions,  but  he  encounters  literary 
wholes  as  the  author  produced  them.  It  may  be  primarily 
the  extension  of  knowledge,  the  clarifying  and  impressing  of 
knowledge,  the  broadening  and  deepening  of  appreciation; 
any  or  all  of  these.  A  second  aim,  no  less  real  than  the  first 
and  by  some  considered^subordinate  to  it  alone,  is  the  appli- 
cation of  methods  of  study  and  investigation  to  concrete 
situations  of  life.  By  it  the  student  is  led  to  know  how. 
The  thinjLand  often  the  chief  aim  of  the  intellectual  labora- 
tory procedure  is  the  training  in  observation  and  induction, 
in  analysis  and  synthesis.  Confronted  with  the  concrete 
data  and  objects,  he  is  called  upon  to  perform  much  the  same 
intellectual  process  as  that  of  the  lesson  development,  includ- 
ing interpretation  of  the  situation,  hypothetical  solution, 
reasoning  out  of  implications,  and  verification.  Employing 
the  method  of  study  learned  in  the  classroom,  he  is  constantly 
called  upon  to  observe  purposively  and  independently  the 
situation  itself,  and  inductively  to  draw  general  conclusions 
from  the  data  he  has  observed.  Thus  he  acquires  accuracy 
in  the  observation  of  qualities  and  quantities,  and  indepen- 
dent judgment  in  the  meeting  of  situations.  A  fourth  aim, 
not  always  functioning  in  all  forms  of  laboratory  work,  yet 
occasionally  of  prime  importance  as  in  domestic  science  and 
manual  training,  is  that  of  technic  and  manual  skill.  The 
manipulation  of  apparatus,  the  drawing  of  specimens,  and 
their  preparation  for  study  all  lend  a  training  of  real  educa- 
tional value.  A  fif thjmd  final  ami,  that  of  verification  of  facts 
learned  in  class,  isTone  to  which  considerable  objection  has  been 
made.  That  verification  is  an  essential  in  discovery  is  not 
questioned,  but  that  it  should  be  made  the  primary  intel- 
lectual aim  in  the  laboratory  is  believed  to  thwart  tke  spirit 
of  independent  thought  and  scientific  method.  It  virtually 


THE   LABORATORY   MODE  211 

consists  in  telling  the  student  that  a  certain  thing  is  true,  and 
then,  assuming  his  incredulity,  it  orders  him  to  see  for  him- 
self. The  truth  is  that  students  seldom  think  of  challenging 
the  statements  of  their  teachers  or  text-books,  and  hence  the 
verification,  as  such,  is  to  them  usually  perfunctory  and  super- 
fluous. Doubtless  the  frequent  employment  of  the  laboratory 
for  verification  rather  than  discovery  is  due  to  the  greater  con- 
venience of  its  administration.  It  is  far  easier  to  familiarize 
the  student  with  the  facts  hi  class,  telling  him  by  way  of 
anticipation  what  to  look  for,  than  to  lead  him  to  the  discov- 
ery of  the  truth  for  himself;  to  work  from  the  classroom  to 
the  laboratory  than  from  the  laboratory  to  the  classroom. 
In  observational  laboratory  work,  such  as  botany  or  zoology, 
invoking  many  seemingly  arbitrary  data,  minor  points  not 
readily  observable  by  the  student  yet  basal  for  the  general 
inferences  of  the  exercise  may  often  with  profit  be  supplied 
to  him  for  verification.1  The  verification  aim,  however,  is  at 
best  a  very  subordinate  one,  and  must  be  treated  only  as 
incidental  to  the  broader  and  more  ultimate  aims  already 
mentioned. 

2.    TYPES  OF  LABORATORY  WORK 

Classified  on  the  basis  of  the  control  of  the  student  over 
his  material,  and  the  consequent  form  of  intellectual  process, 
we  find  four  types  of  laboratory  procedure — the  experimen- 
tal, the  observational,  the  appreciation,  and  the  application 
laboratory — the  fundamental  difference  between  which  is 
suggested  by  the  names  applied  to  them. 

Experimental. — The  experimental  type  of  the  laboratory 
mode,  the  form  which  first  found  its  way  into  the  schools,  is 
that  in  which  the  student,  in  quest  of  knowledge,  controls  his 
materials  and  processes  rather  than  observes  them  as  he 
finds  them.  Experimentation  consists  in  forcing  the  phe- 
nomenon studied  to  occur  under  one's  control.  One  by  one, 
he  varies  the  factors  of  the  situation  and  watches  for  con- 
1  Cf.  Lloyd  and  Bigelow,  "The  Teaching  of  Biology,"  p.  308. 


212  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

sequent  variations  in  the  result.  Unlike  the  observational 
laboratory,  the  experimental  procedure  when  adequately  con- 
ducted needs  but  a  single  observation  of  a  given  type  of 
result,  since  its  basis  is  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect,  not 
mere  observation  of  facts  whose  cause  is  not  adequately 
investigated.  Having  in  a  single  fully  understood  instance 
determined  the  relation  between  pendulum  length  and  vibra- 
tion rate,  the  principle  of  the  uniformity  of  nature  relieves 
the  observer  of  further  trial.  Since  the  high  school  student 
is  seeking  the  discovery  of  principles  hitherto  not  unknown, 
although  unknown  to  himself,  he  can  in  his  control  of  the 
conditions  of  the  experiment  take  advantage  of  the  experience 
of  others,  so  that  his  variations  of  the  factors  are  the  result 
of  selection  made  by  others.  In  Professor  Dewey's  words, 
he  is  playing  with  loaded  dice,  so  constructed  as  to  give  posi- 
tive results,  to  "come  out  right."  In  the  majority  of  cases, 
since  qualitative  control  and  observations  are  more  simple 
and  less  exacting  than  quantitative,  they  should  precede  the 
latter,  which  should  then  serve  as  their  interpretation  and 
application.  The  too  early  and  extensive  use  of  quantitative 
experiments  in  physics  is  an  illustration  of  a  frequent  viola- 
tion of  this  principle,  due  partly  to  the  greater  ease  with 
which  such  exercises  are  devised  and  made  definite  to  the 
younger  student,  partly  to  the  failure  of  the  college-trained 
teacher  to  differentiate  between  the  purpose  of  physics  study 
in  the  high  school  and  that  in  the  college.1 

Observational. — The  observational  type  of  laboratory 
study  is  the  more  recent  in  its  introduction  in  the  schools, 
and  partly  on  that  account  the  less  systematically  developed 
and  extended.  Moreover,  much  which  is  really  laboratory 
work  in  the  study  of  the  humanities  is  not  given  the  name, 
perhaps  due  to  a  misconception  as  to  the  real  meaning  of  the 
laboratory  mode.  Roughly  classified,  there  are  two  varieties 

1  Professor  De  Garmo  gives  an  especially  suggestive  discussion,  of  the 
nature  of  experiment  in  education  in  his  "Principles  of  Secondary  Educa- 
tion, Processes  of  Instruction,"  pp.  14  ff. 


THE  LABORATORY  MODE  213 

of  observational  laboratory  study.  The  first  is  that  in  which 
the  materials  studied  are  already  collected  and  incorporated 
as  a  part  of  the  school  equipment,  in  a  suitable  room  or  de- 
partment variously  known  as  the  laboratory,  the  museum, 
the  library,  etc.  In  the  second  variety,  known  usually  as 
the  field  excursion,  the  material  of  study  is  such  as  to  pre- 
vent its  collection  in  the  laboratory,  either  because  trans- 
portation is  impossible  or  because  the  environment  in  which 
the  material  occurs  is  a  fundamental  element  in  its  study. 
The  first  variety  is  that  usually  employed  in  the  study  of  the 
biological  sciences,  physiography,  and  the  humanities.  It 
includes  the  library  work  in  such  studies  as  history  and  much 
of  that  in  the  foreign  languages  and  in  English.  The  use 
of  photographs,  stereoscopic  and  stereopticon  pictures,  and 
museum  specimens,  when  made  the  basis  for  serious  study 
by  the  student,  as  well  as  of  maps  in  history  and  physiogra- 
phy, provides  many  serviceable  forms  of  this  first  variety  of 
observational  laboratory.  The  second  variety,  that  of  the 
field  excursion,  has  a  much  narrower  range,  being  usually 
employed  in  the  biological  sciences  and  physiography  to  sup- 
plement the  work  done  in  the  classroom  and  school  labora- 
tory. The  study  of  civics,  wherein  the  students  make  first- 
hand observations  of  civic  procedure  and  conditions,  offers  a 
splendid  field  for  the  field  excursion.  The  Germans,  in  their 
study  of  history,  have  something  similar  to  it  in  the  Schul- 
reise  or  school  excursion  to  some  place  of  historic  interest,  a 
plan  which  in  a  less  degree  might  well  be  attempted  in  America. 
In  the  observational  laboratory  the  activity  in  which  the 
observation  culminates  is  usually  description,  though  with 
inference  as  an  occasional  secondary  or  even  primary  activity. 
The  description  may  be  in  the  form  of  language,  of  drawing, 
or  of  both.  When  directed  to  report  what  he  has  seen,  the 
student  becomes  a  more  careful,  accurate,  and  adequate  ob- 
server, and  that  which  is  observed  is  more  deeply  impressed; 
whether  that  report  be  in  the  form  of  words  or  of  a  drawing 
naturally  depends  upon  the  subject  matter.  A  laboratory 


214  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

exercise  in  literary  interpretation  or  comparison,  in  history, 
or  in  fact  in  nearly  all  humanistic  studies,  naturally  involves 
a  report  in  language.  In  botany,  zoology,  physiography,  and 
physiology,  extensive  use  is  made  of  drawings  to  induce  and 
direct  the  observation,  as  well  as  to  report  upon  it,  and  draw- 
ings which  serve  only  as  unthinking  reports  are  practically 
valueless,  except  for  the  development  of  technic,  an  aim 
for  which  such  studies  are  not  primarily  intended.  For  the 
study  of  relations  and  general  features,  diagrammatic  draw- 
ings are  the  more  serviceable;  for  the  observation  of  details, 
descriptive  drawings  are  of  more  value.1 

Inference,  as  the  second  element  in  the  observational 
laboratory  mode,  is  not  always  present.  It  enters  when  an 
aim  of  the  exercise  is  the  discovery  of  general  principles,  e.  g., 
in  finding  the  general  characteristics  of  different  varieties  of 
a  species  in  botany,  the  general  character  of  the  poetical 
writings  of  a  period  of  literature,  or  the  dominant  motive  in 
a  series  of  popular  movements  in  a  historical  period.  The 
value  of  training  in  independent  inference  in  such  cases  is 
great,  and  opportunities  for  its  development  are  more  fre- 
quent than  is  often  realized. 

Comparing  the  two  varieties  of  observational  laboratory  as 
to  educational  value,  it  would  seem  that  in  the  first  the  ma- 
terials are  easier  to  study,  better  selected,  and  usually  easier 
to  describe,  whereas  in  the  second  or  field  excursion  they  ap- 
peal to  the  student  as  peculiarly  real,  rather  than  symbolic 
and  artificial,  and  a  better  training  is  provided  in  the  obser- 
vation of  things  as  they  occur  in  the  environments  of  nature. 

Appreciation. — The  third  type  of  laboratory,  that  for  the 
sake  of  appreciation,  is  one  which  is  seldom  employed,  and 
even  then  is  usually  called  by  another  name.  The  word 
"laboratory"  is  for  the  English  teacher  so  suggestive  of  brass 
instruments  and  mechanical  manipulation  that  it  seems  to 
him  incongruous  when  dealing  with  the  finer  sentiments  of 
literary  study.  The  incongruity  is  seeming  rather  than  real, 

'C/.p.  115. 


THE   LABORATORY   MODE  21$ 

however,  when  the  terms  are  rightly  interpreted.  There  is 
no  good  reason  why  laboratory  exercises  in  appreciation  should 
not  be  made  use  of,  and  some  attempts  in  that  direction  have 
already  been  made.  The  appreciation  of  literature  is  some- 
what allied  to  the  observational  laboratory  in  that  the  stu- 
dent deals  with  his  materials  as  he  finds  them.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  student  is  active  in  the  creation  of  situations,  and 
the  appreciation  enters  in  the  expression  and  realization  of 
his  own  ideas  and  sentiments.  The  essential  element  in  the 
appreciation  laboratory,  however,  is  the  sentiment  involved, 
together  with  its  expression,  rather  than  in  knowledge  and 
inference,  as  in  the  two  other  types.  Naturally  it  is  subject 
to  the  same  general  principles  and  requirements  as  the  appre- 
ciation mode  of  class  instruction,  and  differs  from  the  latter 
only  as  all  laboratory  procedure  differs  from  that  of  the 
classroom. 

Application. — In  the  laboratory  procedure  the  student 
comes  not  merely  to  know  about  things  but  to  know  things. 
Thus,  its  aims  include  the  clarifying  and  impressing  of  knowl- 
edge, bringing  the  process  or  method  to  bear  upon  the  concrete 
object.  A  further  aim  is  the  acquisition  of  technic  and  manual 
skill.  Our  fourth  type  of  laboratory,  which  we  shall  call  the 
application  laboratory,  is  that  in  which  these  are  the  domi- 
nant aims.  Thus,  in  intellectual  character  it  is  essentially  an 
application  procedure  in  laboratory  form,  and  in  common 
practice  forms  the  application  part  of  the  class  exercise.  In 
terms  of  our  classification  of  modes  it  is,  as  its  name  implies, 
a  union  of  two  modes,1  and  as  such  is  subject  to  the  practical 
requirements  of  both.  Domestic  science  and  manual  train- 
ing are  the  two  conspicuous  examples  of  studies  employing 
the  application  laboratory.  Naturally  either  of  these  will 
often  provide  occasion  for  experimentation,  but  the  experi- 
mental feature  is  rarely  the  dominant  one,  and  the  typical 
lesson  in  them  casts  the  application  step  into  laboratory 
form,  largely  because  of  the  character  of  materials  involved. 
1 A  circumstance  less  distressing  to  the  teacher  than  to  the  logician. 


2l6  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

3.    ESSENTIALS  OF  LABORATORY  INSTRUCTION 

Probably  nowhere  else  in  the  secondary  school  work  do 
the  details  of  procedure  vary  as  widely  with  the  subject  mat- 
ter as  is  the  case  in  the  laboratory  mode.  We  will  accordingly 
limit  ourselves  to  a  statement  of  the  general  principles  gov- 
erning laboratory  procedure,  and  a  few  suggestions  of  their 
implications,  based  largely  upon  the  form  of  thought  and 
training  involved.  Our  discussion  will  deal  with  three  phases 
of  laboratory  procedure:  the  assignment  of  the  problem  or 
exercise,  the  teacher's  function  in  the  laboratory,  and  the 
treatment  of  results. 

i.  Problem  Assignment. — In  the  assignment  of  the  prob- 
lem recognition  should  be  made  of  the  fact  that  only  a  prob- 
lem which  is  a  real  one  to  the  student,  one  which  appeals  to 
him  as  worth  while,  has  any  place  in  the  laboratory  instruc- 
tion. Work  which  is  meaningless  and  perfunctory  destroys 
the  chief  element  of  the  problem,  the  desire  to  find  out  some- 
thing. Often  a  reconstruction  or  restatement  of  a  problem 
in  terms  of  the  student's  own  experience  will  serve  that  pur- 
pose, by  showing  him  that  it  has  a  practical  bearing  instead 
of  a  merely  academic  interest.  In  the  secondary  school  this 
will  usually  require  that  the  problem  of  the  laboratory  be 
one  which  originates  in  the  work  of  the  classroom,  which  has 
brought  him  to  this  problem  as  its  logical  result.  The  unfor- 
tunate plan,  so  common  in  physics,  of  assigning  to  students 
in  the  laboratory  topics  wholly  unrelated  to  the  work  then 
being  done  in  the  classroom  is  clearly  a  violation  of  this  prin- 
ciple. The  excuse  that  the  apparatus  is  too  expensive  to 
supply  all  of  the  pupils  for  simultaneous  work  upon  the 
problems  is  really  no  justification,  for  what  cannot  be  done 
properly  might  better  be  omitted.  In  fact,  an  experiment 
performed  in  the  classroom  by  two  or  three  students,  and 
carefully,  intelligently  watched  by  the  others  who  are  held 
as  responsible  for  results,  as  though  they  themselves  were 
manipulating  the  apparatus,  is  truly  laboratory  work,  and  is 


THE  LABORATORY  MODE  217 

far  superior  educationally  to  individually  performed  experi- 
ments from  which  the  purpose  is  lacking.  With  a  proper 
degree  of  student  participation,  much  that  is  commonly  called 
demonstration  may  serve  as  laboratory  procedure,  and,  to 
repeat  a  thought  elsewhere  expressed,  participation  is  a  mat- 
ter of  mind  rather  than  of  manipulation.1 

A  further  requirement  of  the  laboratory  assignment  is 
definiteness.  The  ami  of  the  problem  as  well  as  the  proce- 
dure in  its  solution  should  be  clear  and  significant  in  the 
student's  mind  at  the  outset,  for  a  lack  of  such  aim  induces 
mere  play  rather  than  work.  This  does  not  mean  that  he 
should  be  told  in  advance  the  results  of  his  experiment  or 
observation,  for  so  doing  destroys  its  character  as  laboratory 
work.  Rather  it  means  simply  that  he  shall  not  be  permitted 
to  plunge  aimlessly  or  carelessly  into  an  investigation,  but 
shall  proceed  with  a  distinct  purpose  to  permeate  and  de- 
termine his  procedure,  and  with  laboratory  instructions  so 
clearly  formulated  that  following  them  he  cannot  fail  to  secure 
the  desired  results.  Account  should  be  taken  of  just  what 
he  may  fairly  be  supposed  to  know,  so  that  he  will  have 
enough  instructions  for  successful  work,  yet  not  enough  to 
relieve  him  of  the  necessity  for  thinking,  judging,  and  adapt- 
ing for  himself.  Too  specific  directions  reduce  the  laboratory 
exercise  to  mechanism.  Merely  the  general  requirements 
should  be  specified  where  the  student  is  qualified,  by  due 
reflection,  to  choose  and  adapt  his  own  details  of  procedure. 

2.  Function  of  Teacher. — The  function  of  the  teacher  in 
the  laboratory  mode  is  threefold.  In  the  first  place,  he  is  to 
provoke  thought,  rather  than  to  supply  it.  By  refraining 
from  discussion  of  the  problem,  but  merely  giving  hints  and 
stimulation  when  needed  for  the  student's  intelligent  proce- 
dure, he  avoids  the  error  suggested  at  the  close  of  the  last 
paragraph.  The  development  of  initiative  and  self-reliance 
for  which  the  laboratory  mode  is  peculiarly  adapted  may 

1  Cf.  Bigclow,  "Teacher's  Manual  of  Biology,"  pp.  7-8;  Welton,  "Prin- 
ciples and  Methods  of  Teaching,"  p.  93. 


2l8  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

easily  be  destroyed  by  the  teacher  who  tells  too  much.  Far 
better  than  answering  questions  is  asking  them,  and  the  skil- 
ful use  of  the  question  by  the  teacher  in  the  laboratory  will 
accomplish  much  by  leading  the  student  to  a  better  evalua- 
tion of  the  facts  he  observes,  for  many  a  laboratory  exercise 
is  practically  wasted  because  the  inexperienced  and  unthink- 
ing pupil  does  not  know  which  of  his  observations  are  funda- 
mental and  significant,  which  are  incidental  or  valueless. 

A  second  function  of  the  teacher  in  the  laboratory  is  to 
prevent  waste  of  tune  and  material.  Due  sometimes  to 
thoughtlessness,  sometimes  to  inexperience,  the  student  may 
undertake  a  wrong  procedure  which  would  occasion  the  loss 
of  valuable  time  as  well  as  of  material.  Here,  as  elsewhere, 
"an  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of  cure."  More- 
over, high  school  students  are  immature  and  often  thought- 
less, and  the  greater  freedom  of  the  laboratory  is  likely  to 
lead  to  a  lack  of  concentration  in  work  or  even  a  spirit  of 
play  which  will  thwart  thoughtful  observation,  and  which 
the  mere  presence  of  a  responsible  teacher  will  usually  pre- 
vent. It  might  be  well  to  observe  here  that  a  little  fore- 
thought on  the  teacher's  part  in  the  preparation  and  distribu- 
tion of  material  before  the  class  enters  the  laboratory  will 
often  work  wonders  in  the  prevention  of  disorder  and  delay 
in  getting  under  way  in  the  first  few  minutes  of  the  exercise. 

Thirdly,  the  teacher  when  supervising  the  laboratory 
study  is  in  a  position  to  direct  the  student  to  the  sources 
upon  which  he  is  to  draw.  In  the  science  laboratory  it  may 
be  the  stores  of  supplies  or  even  the  text-books,  in  the  field 
excursion  it  is  the  plant  or  animal  life  or  the  physiographic 
formations,  in  the  library  it  will  be  books  of  reference. 

The  work  of  the  instructor  in  the  laboratory  is  thus  exact- 
ing, and  the  requirements  of  his  qualifications  many.  The 
character  of  the  work  usually  done  demands  assistants  who 
should  be  able  and  intelligent  lieutenants  and  should  know 
not  merely  the  subject  matter  and  the  technic  of  laboratory 
procedure,  but  the  student's  pedagogical  need  as  well.  This 


THE   LABORATORY   MODK  2 19 

refers  in  a  peculiar  way  to  the  school  librarian,  who  should  be 
broadly  educated,  ready  to  co-operate  with  instructors,  and 
able  to  interpret  and  wisely  meet  the  needs  of  the  high  school 
student. 

3.  Results. — The  use  made  of  the  results  in  the  laboratory 
is  as  important  as  the  securing  of  the  results.  The  notion  , 
that  a  laboratory  exercise  is  practically  completed  when  the 
experiment  is  performed,  the  drawing  made,  or  the  class  re- 
turned from  the  field  trip  is  a  common  but  unfortunate  one. 
Rather  it  is  but  the  beginning,  the  preparatory  step,  as  a 
moment's  reflection  will  show.  Three  requirements  of  the 
use  of  laboratory  results  suggest  themselves. 

First,  they  should  be  definitely  thought  through  and  their 
meaning  sought.  The  facts  merely  as  such  are  of  no  value; 
their  value  appears  only  when  they  serve  to  answer  the  ques- 
tion for  which  the  exercise  was  originally  designed.  Not  in- 
frequently the  deferring  of  the  writing  up  of  results  until 
after  the  close  of  the  exercise  leads  to  their  being  better 
evaluated  and  more  intelligently  described. 

Secondly,  they  should  be  adequately  described,  usually  in 
writing,  although  a  short  quiz  at  the  end  of  the  laboratory 
exercise  will  often  serve  to  bring  to  consciousness  points 
otherwise  overlooked  and  which  before  the  following  class 
exercise  would  have  passed  beyond  recall.  Adequate  de- 
scription will  usually  involve  a  statement  of  the  problem  to 
be  solved,  a  description  of  the  procedure  and  its  results,  and 
an  interpretation  of  the  significance  of  the  results  for  the 
original  problem  of  the  exercise.  Such  a  description,  com- 
mon in  scientific  study,  might  prove  adaptable  to  laboratory 
work  in  the  humanities  as  well.  As  a  form  of  expression,  it 
would  tend  to  increase  the  clearness  of  the  pupil's  thought 
and  deepen  the  impression  made,  thus  rendering  the  results 
of  the  exercise  more  permanent.  A  well-organized  form  of 
the  written  description  in  the  laboratory  manual,  if  not  car- 
ried to  the  degree  of  pedantry,  will  add  much  to  completeness 
and  systematic  arrangement  of  both  thought  and  description. 


22O  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

A  third  requirement  is  that  the  results  of  the  laboratory 
shall  be  closely  correlated  with  the  work  of  the  classroom. 
The  recitation  and  development  hi  subsequent  class  exercises 
should  take  account  of  what  the  student  has  learned  in  the 
laboratory,  using  the  results  as  the  basis  of  his  further  study. 
This  practice  adds  greatly  to  his  feeling  of  the  value  of  those 
results,  and  in  fact  is  Indispensable  for  the  continuity  of  the 
course  as  a  whole.  Occasionally  the  class  might  well  make  a 
thorough  study  of  their  laboratory  results  as  recorded  in 
their  note-books,  thus  affording  opportunity  for  recalling,  in- 
terpreting, correcting,  and  organizing  the  entire  laboratory 
work  of  the  course. 

4.    SUMMARY 

The  laboratory  mode  has  a  fivefold  aim:  (i)  knowledge 
and  often  appreciation,  (ii)  application  of  methods  of  study, 
(hi)  training  in  observation  and  induction,  (iv)  technic  and 
manual  skill,  (v)  verification  (in  rare  cases). 

The  four  types  of  laboratory  procedure  are  (i)  experi- 
mental, in  which  the  phenomena  studied  are  under  the  stu- 
dent's control,  (ii)  observational,  including  the  study  of  mate- 
rials collected  in  laboratory,  museum,  or  library,  and  that  of 
data  best  accessible  through  the  field  excursion,  (iii)  apprecia- 
tion, which  aims  at  sentiment  as  the  first  two  aim  at  knowl- 
edge, (iv)  application,  which  aims  at  skill  in  the  application 
of  knowledge,  with  the  acquisition  aim  subordinate.- 

In  the  laboratory  procedure  the  problem  must  be  a  real 
one  for  the  student,  and  definitely  formulated.  The  function 
of  the  teacher  in  the  laboratory  is  to  provoke  thought,  to  pre- 
vent waste  of  time  and  materials,  and  to  direct  the  student 
to  the  sources.  The  results  secured  by  the  student  in  the 
laboratory  should  be  definitely  thought  through,  and  inter- 
preted by  him,  they  should  be  adequately  described,  and 
they  should  be  constantly  correlated  with  the  work  of  the 
classroom. 


THE   LABORATORY  MODE  221 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  In  many  college  courses  of  instruction  the  entire  work  consists 
of  laboratory  procedure,   without  classroom  exercises.     Discuss  the 
feasibility  of  such  a  plan  in  the  high  school. 

2.  It  is  said  that  in  the  experimental  laboratory  the  student  "is 
playing  with  loaded  dice,  so  constructed  as  to  give  positive  results." 
Does  not  this  circumstance  destroy  the  value  of  such  study  as  a  train- 
ing in  methods  of  scientific  study? 

3.  Is  the  knowledge  aim  in  the  manual  training  and  domestic 
science  laboratory  more  fundamental  in  senior  high  school  than  in 
junior  high  school  work?     Why?     In  domestic  science,   might  the 
laboratory  be  of  the  experimental  type?    Justify  your  answer. 

4.  Can  the  appreciation  laboratory  work  serve  at  the  same  time 
as  lesson  study  ?    If  so,  should  it  not  be  supplemented  by  independent 
study  ? 

5.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  a  previous  class 
exercise  discussion  of  the  coming  laboratory  exercise?     What  should 
characterize  such  a  discussion,  if  provided? 

6.  Point  out  how  the  untrained  laboratory  assistant  might  violate 
all  three  functions  of  the  teacher  in  the  laboratory  mode. 

7.  In  case  the  student's  report  upon  a  laboratory  exercise  is  very 
inadequate,  under  what  circumstances  should  a  repetition  of  the  exer- 
cise be  required? 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READINGS 

Parker,  "Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools,"  chap.  XIX. 
Twiss,  "A  Textbook  in  the  Principles  of  Science  Teaching,"  chap. 

VIII. 
Goddard,  "Laboratory  Teaching,"  in  School  Science  and  Mathematics, 

November,  1916. 
Luke,  "The  Springfield  Laboratory-Recitation  Method  of  Teaching 

Latin,"  in  School  and  Home  Education,  December,  1916. 
Moon,  "Laboratory  Methods  of  Teaching  Contemporary  History  at 

Columbia  University,"  in  History  Teacher's  Magazine,   March, 

1917. 
The  Wilson  Bulletin,  especially  the  following  articles:  Mendenhall, 

"The  School  Library  as  a  Laboratory,"  in  the  Wilson  Bulletin 

for  June,  1917.     Warren,  "Opportunities  for  Study  in  the  High 

School  Library,"  in  the  Wilson  Bulletin  for  October,  1916. 


CHAPTER  XII 

STUDY  AS  SELF-TEACHING 

i.    SIGNIFICANCE  OF  STUDY 

Student  Self-Control  and  Self-Direction. — In  the  classroom 
instruction  the  responsibility  for  initiative  and  direction  nec- 
essarily rests  mainly  with  the  teacher.  We  saw  in  our  study 
of  the  laboratory  mode  that  one  essential  feature  of  that 
mode  is  its  placing  of  a  greater  degree  of  responsibility  upon 
the  student.  In  outside  study  student  responsibility  reaches 
the  most  extreme  form  which  school  work  affords. 

The  chief  function  of  the  school  is  to  establish  a  gradual 
transfer  of  authority  and  guidance  from  without  to  within 
the  child.  The  two  fundamental  activities  of  the  school  are 
its  moral  training  under  the  form  of  discipline  and  its  intellec- 
tual training  under  the  form  of  instruction.  In  these  the 
movement  is  parallel;  the  establishment  of  self-control  and 
of  self-direction  respectively.  Without  the  attainment  of 
these  two,  the  benefits  of  the  school's  training  extend  no 
farther  than  its  walls.  Perhaps  nowhere  do  these  two  attain- 
ments assume  so  definite  a  form  as  in  study,  and  nothing  so 
surely  characterizes  the  educated  man  as  their  manifestation 
in  capacity  and  disposition  for  study.  The  school,  therefore, 
which  does  not  succeed  in  training  its  students  to  study  fails 
to  just  that  degree  to  produce  results  which  persist  after  its 
activities  cease.  It  has  but  written  on  the  sand. 

Justification  of  Home  Study. — In  an  earlier  chapter1 
the  question  was  raised  regarding  the  wisdom  of  abolishing 
outside  study,  and  letting  the  class  exercise  include  all  neces- 
sary preparation  for  the  next  day's  work.  The  question  nat- 
urally recurs  here,  and  the  thought  of  the  foregoing  paragraph 

1  Cf.  p.  195- 

222 


STUDY  AS   SELP-TEACHING  223 

plays  a  large  part  in  the  answer.  The  youth  will  not  always 
have  schools  in  which  to  study  nor  teachers  to  instruct  him. 
His  education  must  lead  to  self-reliance  and  initiative  in  his 
post-scholastic  study.  In  the  primary  grades  self-control  and 
self-direction  are  not  possible  or  expected.  In  the  high  school 
a  considerable  degree  of  them  is  possible  and  to  be  expected. 
If  now  the  work  of  lesson  preparation  be  made  wholly  a 
classroom  affair,  under  the  constant  guidance  and  stimulation 
of  the  teacher,  it  may  well  be  questioned  if  we  are  not  letting 
escape  the  best  opportunity  of  school  life  for  the  development 
of  self-reliance  and  self-control.  Somewhere,  at  some  time, 
the  child  must  let  go  the  teacher's  hand  and  walk  alone.  If 
the  transition  from  supervision  to  independence  in  study  is 
to  be  made,  as  it  ultimately  must  be  made,  the  school  life 
would  seem  to  be  the  most  natural,  easy,  and  safe  time  for 
such  transition. 

2.    TEACHING  TO  STUDY 

With  lesson  assigned  and  class  dismissed,  the  teacher  too 
often  imagines  his  task  completed,  his  duty  done.  On  the 
contrary,  the  very  nature  of  the  lesson  assignment  implies  an 
activity  in  which  the  student  is  his  own  instructor  and  task- 
master, a  condition  to  which  only  adult  development  can 
attain  or  even  approximate.  As  teachers  we  assume  that 
our  students  should  be  able  to  study  properly  and  are  blind 
to  the  fact  that  they  do  not  and  cannot.  Only  very  recently 
have  we  realized  that  we  must  teach  our  students  to  study, 
and  that  at  least  a  part  of  that  study  can  best  be  done  under 
supervision. 

Self-Teaching. — Studying  is  really  nothing  more  nor  less 
than  self-teaching.  What  the  teacher  has  done  for  him  in  the 
class  exercise,  the  student  must  in  his  study  do  for  himself. 
For  just  this  reason  the  best  preparation  for  out-of-class 
study  is  classroom  learning,  and  the  best  way  to  teach  pupils 
to  study  at  home  is  to  teach  the  lessons  well  in  class.  The 
principles  of  study  are  really  the  same,  whether  applied  to 


224  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

classroom  or  home  work.  The  causes  of  pupils'  inability  to 
study  out  of  class  are  usually  two:  either  poor  methods  of 
class  teaching  or  a  failure  to  cause  students  to  be  conscious 
of  good  methods  as  methods.  Surely  the  teacher  who  cannot 
teach  well  will  not  expect  his  pupils  to  teach  themselves 
well.  And  on  the  other  hand,  unless  pupils  see  not  only  what 
is  done  but  how  it  is  done,  they  will  not  be  able  to  employ 
the  methods  in  their  own  work. 

Importance  of  Teaching  to  Study. — Every  normal  child, 
whatever  his  motive  for  study,  would  rather  succeed  than 
fail  in  his  efforts.  Indeed,  many  pupils'  dislike  for  study  is 
due  not  to  dislike  for  work  or  for  subject  matter,  but  to 
inability  to  accomplish  what  they  undertake.  And  who  can 
blame  them?  High  school  students  are  potentially  better 
psychologists  than  we  commonly  suppose.  With  a  little 
practical  guidance  they  will  effectually  and  profitably  co- 
operate in  a  study  of  the  best  methods  of  learning  their  les- 
sons. How  to  commit  material  to  memory,  how  to  attack  a 
problem,  how  to  hit  upon  the  central  thought  of  a  lesson  or  a 
passage,  how  to  see  the  significance  of  the  paragraphing  of  the 
text,  to  use  the  table  of  contents,  or  to  run  down  references, 
all  of  these  are  for  them  real,  intelligent  problems  upon  which 
practical  suggestions  from  the  teacher  will  be  eagerly  wel- 
comed. 

Lesson  development  is  neither  doing  the  pupil's  work  for 
him  nor  expecting  him  to  grope  in  the  dark  in  the  face  of  new 
situations.  Doing  his  work  for  him  will  never  produce  power 
for  independent  work;  and  doing  things  without  consciousness 
of  method  or  meaning  will  not  lead  to  power  to  do  them  again 
or  to  do  other  things.  Development  is  the  inducing  and 
directing  of  student  activity  in  meeting  situations,  and  as 
such  provides  the  ideal  basis  for  teaching  him  to  study:  to 
re-attack  the  same  problem  and  to  attack  parallel  and  related 
problems  on  his  own  initiative.  When  in  the  class  exercise 
the  student  is  given  just  enough  assistance  with  an  activity, 
so  that  he'  himself  does  it  and  does  it  intelligently,  and,  fur- 


STUDY  AS   SELF-TEACHING  22$ 

ther,  when  his  attention  is  specifically  directed  to  the  process 
as  a  basis  for  his  own  further  activity,  we  may  truly  say  that 
he  has  been  taught  to  study.  All  five  modes  of  instruction, 
therefore,  and  especially  the  problematic,  appreciation,  and 
expression-application  procedures,  naturally  form  the  basis 
for  teaching  to  study. 

The  Study  Attitude. — The  first  essential  in  study,  and  one 
of  the  most  vital,  is  the  attitude  toward  it.  This  is  largely 
dependent  upon  the  assignment,  which  must  be  something 
of  real  value  to  the  student.  He  must  evaluate  the  result  to 
be  accomplished  by  the  task  as  a  thing  which  will  meet  a 
need,  immediate  or  remote,  in  his  further  work.  This  neces- 
sarily arises  from  a  knowledge  of  the  problem  to  be  solved, 
and  he  must  be  taught  to  begin  by  getting  his  bearings.  The 
student  must  know  the  purpose  of  his  studying.  It  is  not 
enough  that  he  do  his  work  because  it  is  assigned,  but  he  must 
understand  what  it  is  to  accomplish  in  order  that  he  may 
adapt  means  to  end  and  may  know  when  the  end  is  attained. 
Thus  each  assignment  must  be  made  primarily  in  terms  of 
product  rather  than  of  process.  It  should  not  be  a  matter 
of  "do  this"  but  of  "accomplish  this."  As  teachers  we  must 
take  our  pupils  into  partnership  with  us,  realizing  the  fact 
that  the  high  school  student  is  far  more  capable  of  an  intelli- 
gent appreciation  of  ends  and  means  than  we  usually  credit 
him  with  being.  Could  we  but  overhear  him  at  his  study, 
we  might  often  hear  the  complaint:  "I  suppose  this  is  all  of 
some  use,  but  I  wish  I  knew  of  what  use."  While  it  is,  of 
course,  true  that  much  of  the  work  has  a  largely  propaedeutic 
value  which  is  but  dimly  recognized  by  the  student,  never- 
theless a  little  special  effort  will  give  even  this  purpose  a 
genuine  appeal  to  him.  When  he  feels  that  the  teacher  is 
appealing  to  his  co-operation,  and  credits  him  with  an  intelli- 
gent attitude  toward  his  work,  the  co-operation  will  usually 
be  rendered  and  the  attitude  will  develop  until  he  feels  that 
the  assignment  is  his  own  self-imposed  work  rather  than 
merely  a  task  imposed  by  the  teacher. 


226  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

As  one  of  the  first  steps  in  the  preparation  of  the  lesson, 
therefore,  the  pupil  should  be  trained  to  seek  its  purpose;  to 
ask  himself  just  what  it  is  intended  to  accomplish.  What  is 
needed  more  in  our  high  schools  is  not  a  blind  obedience  to 
commands,  but  the  attitude  that  challenges  for  the  meaning 
of  things.  The  world  is  already  well  supplied  with  unthink- 
ing followers;  the  secondary  school  is  to  develop  leaders  who 
are  trained  to  investigate  purposes  before  initiating  actions. 

Problems  with  plenty  of  action  and  with  tangible  results 
are  particularly  favorable  for  inducing  this  attitude.  For 
example,  the  preparation  of  a  careful  comparison-contrast 
between  the  writings  of  two  literary  men  or  between  the 
chemical  qualities  of  two  elements  will  induce  far  greater  in- 
terest than  an  assignment  of  a  disconnected  study  of  each. 
Problems  in  which  the  student  can  see  through  to  the  con- 
crete application  of  his  thinking  will  induce  a  better  attitude 
toward  that  thinking. 

Things  one  likes  to  do  are  always  better  done.  We  must, 
therefore,  give  to  assigned  tasks  as  bright  an  aspect  as  we 
can,  and  must  let  the  pupil  see  that  a  corresponding  attitude 
on  his  part  will  lighten  and  brighten  the  performance.  He 
must  give  his  efforts  not  grudgingly  nor  of  necessity,  but 
cheerfully.  Pretending  that  he  enjoys  it  will  tend  to  induce 
enjoyment,  so  let  him  seek  to  work  as  if  he  did  enjoy  it.  He 
should  be  taught  to  do  more  than  the  minimum  requirement, 
for  in  the  gratuitous  extra  work,  such  as  "reading  out"  from 
the  topic,  working  extra  exercises,  and  devising  supplemen- 
tary applications,  the  extra  power  and  knowledge  gained  will 
result  in  enlarged  interest.  The  teacher's  personal  attitude 
toward  those  who  do  more  than  the  minimum  will  tend  to 
increase  their  number. 

Orientation  and  Organization. — Much  of  the  difficulty  of 
students  in  getting  their  bearings  is  due  to  the  teacher's  mis- 
taken conception  of  the  function  of  the  assignment.  When 
the  student's  task  involves  a  plunge  into  unknown  waters,  it 
is  little  wonder  that  he  flounders  about;  the  wonder  is,  rather, 


STUDY  AS   SELF-TEACHING  227 

that  he  gets  on  as  well  as  he  does.  With  a  definite  assign- 
ment growing  out  from  the  lesson  development,  the  student 
will  have  his  bearings  fairly  well  at  the  outset  of  his  subse- 
quent study.  The  problems  arising,  the  intellectual  needs  to 
be  met,  will  be  his  own,  as  well  as  the  essentials  for  their 
solution. 

If  the  assignment  include  a  review  of  the  preceding  lesson, 
the  orientation  of  the  new  work  will  be  better  insured.  Get- 
ting one's  bearings  is  largely  a  matter  of  perspective,  and 
students  do  not  know  how  to  evaluate  and  organize.  Ex- 
perience has  shown  that  even  the  high  school  pupil's  study 
consists  largely  in  indiscriminate  memorizing  of  everything 
assigned  or  mechanical  performance  of  the  set  exercises. 
Usually  he  knows  quite  well  that  not  all  things  are  of  equal 
importance.  His  difficulty  is  that  he  does  not  realize  which 
are  the  important,  which  the  subordinate. 

A  useful  device  for  the  securing  of  organization  is  the 
preparation  of  an  outline  of  the  lesson.  Often  this  begins 
with  development  of  the  power  to  read  rapidly.  Many  stu- 
dents have  never  advanced  beyond  the  stage  of  slow  word-by- 
word reading,  in  which  too  often  the  trend  of  the  thought  is 
lost  sight  of  in  attention  to  details.  Not  infrequently  this 
results  from  misdirected  conscientiousness,  more  often  from 
bad  habits  and  lack  of  training.  To  train  to  read  rapidly  is 
in  many  cases  the  first  step  in  training  to  organize. 

Before  the  student  can  organize  the  lesson  in  the  form  of 
an  outline,  it  is  necessary  to  train  him  to  evaluate  and  to  see 
things  in  their  perspective.  As  in  the  class  exercise,  so  in  his 
study  he  should  be  taught  to  attack  any  undertaking  with  the 
questions:  "What  is  the  thing  which  I  am  setting  out  to  do? 
What  is  the  central  idea  or  principle  or  problem  before  me? 
What  are  the  essential,  what  the  subordinate  points  in  deal- 
ing with  it?"  Outlining  involves  evaluation,  and  specific 
attention  should  be  given  in  the  classroom  to  the  training  of 
judgment,  upon  which  all  evaluation  is  based.  In  the  class- 
room instruction  the  student  should  constantly  be  led  to  dis- 


228  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

tinguish  fundamentals  from  subordinates.  Thus,  he  will  be 
able  to  determine  what  parts  to  memorize,  what  to  study 
intensively,  what  to  pass  over  rapidly.  Much  of  this  train- 
ing may  form  a  part  of  a  class  exercise;  some  of  it  must  be 
given  individually,  in  supervised  study  or  in  personal  con- 
ference. 

Information-Getting. — The  solution  of  a  finding-out  prob- 
lem is  a  matter  of  getting  information,  and  for  information- 
getting  the  same  principles  hold  in  study  as  in  classroom  in- 
struction. Of  the  three  sources  of  information,  observation 
is  evidently  better  for  the  student's  development  than  being 
told  or  even  than  reading  in  books.  We  should  therefore 
urge  upon  him  the  advantages  of  looking  first  to  his  own 
experience  and  observation  for  the  information  sought. 
Often  he  has  the  information  but  does  not  realize  it,  because 
he  has  not  fully  interpreted  the  significance  of  what  he  sees 
or  knows.  Thus,  he  must  be  taught  to  first  analyze  his  own 
store  of  information  for  anything  that  might  bear  on  the 
problem. 

At  the  same  time  we  must  warn  him  against  the  danger 
of  taking  his  observation  for  more  than  it  is  worth.  Books 
represent  the  experience  and  observation  of  others,  presum- 
ably better  observers  than  he,  and  he  will  do  well  to  verify 
his  observations  by  reference  to  these.  He  must  also  be 
taught  to  make  use  of  books  as  sources  of  information.  One 
of  the  greatest  hindrances  to  intellectual  progress  on  the  part 
of  students  is  their  inability  to  make  use  of  books.  Often 
schools  are  inadequately  equipped  with  books,  but  far  more 
often  use  is  not  made  of  the  books  at  hand.  Far  better  to 
sacrifice  somewhat  in  the  selection  of  topics  studied  than  to 
neglect  training  hi  the  use  of  books  because  the  ones  pre- 
ferred are  not  available. 

Children  should  know  what  books  to  use.  Every  teacher 
may  with  profit  spend  a  little  time  occasionally  in  discussing 
with  his  class  the  available  literature  dealing  with  the  topic 
under  consideration,  pointing  out  what  are  good  books,  the 


STUDY  AS   SELF-TEACHING  22Q 

characteristics  of  each,  and  where  in  them  to  find  what  is 
wanted.  The  use  of  index,  of  table  of  contents,  of  chapter 
and  paragraph  titles,  and  of  bibliographies  can  be  easily 
explained,  but  for  lack  of  explanation  these  are  often  neg- 
lected by  school  children. 

The  last  resort  in  information-getting  is  the  asking  of 
other  people.  Who  has  not  seen  school  children  who  mis- 
took it  for  the  first  and  only  mode  of  finding  out  what  they 
did  not  know?  But  although  a  last  resort,  it  is  an  important 
one.  Occasionally  it  may  be  used  as  a  matter  of  economy 
of  time,  when  the  benefit  derived  from  a  laborious  search  in 
books  would  be  more  than  offset  by  its  cost  in  time  and 
effort.  More  frequently,  however,  telling,  especially  by  the 
teacher,  finds  its  place  when  the  manner  of  the  telling  is  fun- 
damental. Books  may  tell  too  much  or  too  little;  may  do 
the  pupil's  thinking  for  him,  or  demand  more  thinking  than 
he  can  do  unaided.  Following  the  general  principle  that  the 
teacher  is  to  do  for  the  child  only  what  he  cannot  as  profit- 
ably do  for  himself,  the  teacher's  assistance  must  take  the 
form  rather  of  stimulating,  with  occasional  telling  as  needed. 
The  telling  must  merely  bridge  the  gaps  in  the  child's  capacity 
and  experience.  Often  it  may  well  be  a  telling  of  where  or 
how  to  find  out,  rather  than  of  giving  the  information  sought. 
Books  the  student  will  or  should  have  with  him  in  life;  the 
teacher  is  his  but  for  a  season. 

Finally,  reading  and  telling  as  sources  of  information 
should  be  followed  by  at  least  partial  verification  in  observa- 
tion and  experience.  Credulity  results  from  a  habit  of  ac- 
cepting ideas  unchallenged.  We  must  teach  students,  after 
reading  or  hearing  a  thing,  to  check  it  up  with  already  pos- 
sessed experience  and  reason,  and  see  that  it  is  in  harmony. 
If  not,  find  out  why  not,  nor  stop  till  harmony  in  thought  is 
established.  This  checking-up  training  will  at  the  same  time 
prove  to  be  an  excellent  training  in  original  discovery. 

Memorizing. — Acquisitions,  whether  of  facts  or  of  proc- 
esses, must  be  conserved.  Study  must  secure  the  retention 


230  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

of  both,  and  must  take  account  of  the  laws  of  memory-form- 
ing and  habit-forming.  In  a  concrete  form  at  least,  these 
laws  are  intelligible  to  the  high  school  pupil,  and  he  should 
be  shown  their  application  to  his  study. 

Habit-forming  requires  in  the  first  place  a  strong  motiva- 
tion, which  in  turn  is  possible  only  on  the  basis  of  conscious- 
ness of  ami  and  understanding  of  procedure.  Unintelligent 
drill  lacks  the  vigor  which  should  mark  the  initiation  of 
habit.  The  student  must  therefore  make  sure  that  he  knows 
just  what  he  is  doing  and  why  he  is  doing  as  he  is  if  he  would 
give  the  process  he  is  acquiring  a  strong  initiative.  It  must 
have  the  zest  of  achievement,  the  consciousness  of  doing 
something.  Secondly,  as  every  schoolboy  knows,  repetition 
fixates  habit.  Here,  too,  each  act  must  be  permeated  with 
the  consciousness  of  the  thing  to  be  done  and  of  the  process 
as  a  doing  of  that  thing. 

In  memory-forming  the  first  rule  for  the  student  to  ob- 
serve is  that  the  content  must  be  deeply  impressed.  Recall- 
ing the  suggestions  of  our  earlier  discussion,  the  student  may 
profitably  write  out  what  he  has  read,  thus  establishing  a 
motor  image  as  well  as  a  visual  one.  Note  taking  and  note 
bookkeeping,  especially  if  use  be  made  of  the  notes  in  the 
study,  serve  the  same  purpose.  Intelligent  marking  of  books, 
making  the  significant  points  conspicuous,  is  an  art  which 
the  student  may  profitably  be  shown  and  which  will  add 
much  to  visual  impression.  Reading  aloud  or  listening  while 
another  reads  will  likewise  reinforce  with  an  auditory  image. 
It  might  be  well  for  the  teacher  to  discover  whether  the  child 
is  not  employing  in  study  only  the  type  of  imagery  in  which 
he  is  strongest,  and  to  suggest  to  him  how  the  use  of  the 
others  would  help  to  reinforce  the  impressions  made.  He 
should  also  be  trained  to  attain  clarity  of  ideas  before  he  seeks 
their  fixation.  Hazy  ideas,  like  dull  tools,  make  but  shallow 
impressions,  which  soon  disappear,  and  the  student  must  form 
the  habit  of  persisting  until  he  knows  exactly  what  he  seeks 
to  memorize.  Usually  it  adds  to  the  depth  of  impression  to 


STUDY  AS   SELF-TEACHING  23! 

allow  it  a  short  time  in  which  to  "set"  before  advancing  to  a 
new  one.  Impressions  following  too  closely  upon  one  another 
become  confused,  and  tend  to  obliterate  each  other.  Reviv- 
ing an  impression  shortly  after  encountering  it  tends  to 
deepen  it;  hence,  a  rapid  review,  either  by  reading  or  recall 
of  a  paragraph  just  read,  will  pay  better  than  a  review  later 
on,  though  both  are  profitable. 

In  general,  drill  whether  upon  processes  or  upon  facts 
should  be  frequent  rather  than  consecutive,  and  the  student 
should  be  taught  to  so  plan  his  study  as  to  break  up  the  drill 
into  occasional  but  brief  periods.  Secondly,  he  should  know 
when  to  stop.  This  should  be  only  when  the  drill  has  lasted 
long  enough  for  a  lasting,  not  a  temporary,  retention.  Only 
when  he  finds  that  he  can  recall  it  without  having  revived  it 
immediately  before  should  he  consider  it  learned.  A  rapid 
review  of  a  lesson  of  whatever  kind  immediately  before  the 
recitation  upon  it  is  of  great  profit,  provided  the  lesson  prep- 
aration was  itself  thorough.  In  the  third  place,  students 
should  be  taught  upon  what  to  drill.  They  should  be  shown 
that  drill  is  applicable  to  processes  and  rote  memory,  but  little 
if  at  all  to  logical  memory.  The  one  seeming  exception  would 
be  in  the  case  of  formal  rules  or  formulas  of  which  the  use 
must  be  too  immediate  and  frequent  to  permit  a  rethinking 
of  the  steps  by  which  the  rule  or  formula  was  derived.  In 
such  cases,  however,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  formula  of 
words  merely  supplements  the  thought  and  does  not  sup- 
plant it. 

Equally  important  with  the  impression  of  an  idea  is  its 
association.  The  farmer  driving  to  town  hitches  his  horse 
to  a  post,  not  to  a  car  on  the  siding.  He  knows  that  when 
he  seeks  the  horse  he  will  find  him,  because  he  knows  he  can 
find  the  post.  Similarly,  the  student  should  be  trained  to 
associate  the  idea  he  is  learning  with  other  and  familiar  ideas. 
Associations  are  based  upon  relationships.  One  of  the  first 
things  for  him  to  do,  therefore,  is  to  search  out  the  relation- 
ships between  the  new  idea  and  as  many  as  possible  familiar 


232  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

ones.  Thus,  when  he  wishes  to  recall  the  new  one,  he  can 
trace  it  back  from  any  of  the  known  ones  to  which  it  is  joined. 
Evidently  the  more  of  such  relationships  are  established,  the 
more  easily  he  can  hit  upon  an  idea  that  will  lead  him  to  his 
goal.  And  evidently  the  stronger  the  relationship,  the  more 
lasting  and  dependable  the  association.  Mnemonic  devices 
are  almost  always  based  on  an  artificial  relationship,  not  a 
real  one,  and  for  that  reason  are  often  more  of  an  obstacle 
than  an  assistance  in  recall. 

Thinking-Out  of  Problems. — Not  a  little  of  what  has  been 
said  on  teaching  the  student  to  deal  with  finding-out  problems 
is  more  or  less  applicable  to  the  thinking-out  problem  as  well. 
In  the  latter,  as  truly  as  in  the  former,  the  problem  must  be 
clear  in  the  student's  mind.  He  must  know  whether  he  seeks 
a  generalization  or  a  concrete  application  or  both  in  one 
problem.  Otherwise  he  will  in  the  former  case  be  prone  to 
stop  short  with  information  about  the  illustrations  rather 
than  go  on  to  the  generalization.  In  the  latter  case,  the 
relation  between  principle  and  application  will  not  be  ade- 
quately established.  A  clearly  formulated  statement  of  his 
problem,  "the  thing  I  propose  to  find  or  do  is  so-and-so," 
will  tend  to  induce  clarity  of  problem.  Moreover,  when  the 
student  has  adequately  recognized  his  problem  and  caught 
its  significance,  the  second  requirement,  that  the  problem  be 
a  real  one  for  him,  will  in  large  measure  have  been  met. 

The  student  does  not  need  to  be  taught  to  form  a  tenta- 
tive solution  to  a  real  problem,  but  he  does  need  to  be  taught 
to  form  a  good  one.  It  is  so  much  easier  to  guess  than  to 
think,  and  young  people,  lacking  the  sense  of  responsibility 
and  the  restraint  of  the  instructor's  presence,  are  prone  to 
guess.  They  must  be  shown  that  mere  guessing  is  not  solv- 
ing, but  that  results  come  only  from  sound  hypotheses.  Thus 
the  formulation  of  hypothesis  and  the  reasoning  out  of  its 
implications  are  inseparable.  The  student  must  feel  the  im- 
portance of  sound  thinking,  of  challenging  his  conclusions, 
and  of  making  sure  that  the  solution  looks  rational,  in  so  far 


STUDY  AS   SELF-TEACHING  233 

as  he  can  discover.  This  challenge  attitude  must  then  culmi- 
nate in  certainty,  with  less  than  which  he  should  not  be  con- 
tent. An  unverified  hypothesis  should  produce  a  feeling  of 
uneasiness;  it  should  be  an  unbalanced  force  which  will  act 
until  stability  is  attained.  He  must  know  before  he  is  sat- 
isfied. 

This  demand  for  certainty  is  largely  an  attitude  of  mind, 
which  can  best  be  taught  in  the  classroom  by  always  insisting 
upon  certainty  in  work  and  leading  students  to  challenge  and 
criticise  their  own  and  others'  work.  In  these  ways  they 
come  to  associate  certainty  with  solutions.  However,  they 
do  not  always  know  how  to  make  certain.  Much  of  implica- 
tion and  of  verification  demands  a  broader  experience  than 
the  student  possesses.  He  does  not  think  of  even  familiar 
things  and  ideas  as  related  to  his  problem.  Much  of  this 
experience  must  be  brought  to  bear  by  the  teacher,  especially 
in  the  assignment.  One  of  the  functions  of  the  assignment 
is  to  suggest  problematic  situations  and  relationships,  so  that 
the  pupil  in  his  study  will  have  his  attention  directed  to 
them.  The  good  assignment  is  the  one  that  gives  just  the 
needed  direction  here,  but  at  the  same  time  shows  the  pupil 
how  to  look  for  implications  and  verification  on  his  own 
account.  It  makes  study  effectual  and  thereby  trains  to 
study. 

Appreciation. — Since  appreciation-teaching  consists  in  se- 
curing conditions  under  which  the  appreciation  can  occur, 
teaching  how  to  study  appreciation  material  is  merely  the 
teaching  of  how  to  create  corresponding  conditions  in  study. 
As  the  teacher  in  the  classroom  assists  the  student  in  the 
securing  of  those  conditions,  he  must  help  him  to  create  those 
conditions  when  by  himself. 

The  first  condition,  an  understanding  of  medium  of  ex- 
pression and  of  thought,  is  one  without  which  study  avails 
little.  We  therefore  must  make  the  assignment  such  that 
the  student  will  early  familiarize  himself  with  the  medium 
of  expression.  This  involves  the  development  of  an  unwill- 


234  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

ingness  to  let  an  unfamiliar  word  or  phrase  go  unchallenged. 
In  a  way,  this  is  but  a  phase  of  the  general  attitude  already 
discussed,  of  intellectual  unrest  in  the  face  of  that  which 
is  not  understood.  The  same  holds  of  the  study  of  the 
thought  as  well  as  of  the  language.  It  is  often  well  to  devise 
as  a  part  of  the  assignment  some  exercise  which  demands  an 
understanding  of  the  content.  Often  this  is  best  attained 
by  bringing  out  the  problematic  element  in  the  content,  so 
that  the  solution  demands  a  knowledge  of  language  and 
thought. 

Appreciation  demands  vividness  of  imagery.  Pupils 
should  be  encouraged  to  picture  to  themselves  the  thing 
described.  We  must  show  them  that  the  study  is  not  merely 
reading  but  seeing,  and  suggest  that  often  in  their  reading 
they  occasionally  pause  while  with  eyes  closed  (at  least  men- 
tally) they  image  to  themselves  the  thing  described.  Visual 
and  auditory  imagery  are  especially  easy  to  cultivate,  and  are 
essential  to  most  literary  appreciation.  Occasionally  the 
assignment  may  well  include  a  search  for  appropriate  pictures 
to  illustrate  passages,  and  add  to  the  vividness. 

But  the  student  even  more  than  the  teacher  is  in  danger 
of  mistaking  this  sort  of  study  for  appreciation,  whereas  it  is 
but  the  securing  of  conditions  favoring  appreciation.  Es- 
thetic or  ethical  appreciation  is  based  on  a  realization  that 
the  thing  is  beautiful  or  good,  and  such  realization  must  be 
secured.  Appreciation  is  taught  in  the  classroom  by  lead- 
ing the  pupil  to  pass  judgment  on  the  beauty  or  goodness  of 
a  thing.  In  the  same  way,  appreciation  study  must  involve 
the  forming  of  such  judgments,  and  can  best  be  secured  by 
an  assignment  calling  for  these  judgments.  While  the  stu- 
dent may  not  always  tell  what  he  means  by  beauty  or  good- 
ness, he  can  profitably  search  out  and  indicate  those  passages 
or  features  which  he  likes,  and  tell  somewhat  of  why  he  likes 
them.  The  efforts  will  be  crude  at  the  first,  but  practice, 
properly  encouraged  and  directed  in  the  class  exercise,  will 
lead  to  improvement. 


STUDY  AS   SELF-TEACHING  235 

Application  in  Study. — Possibly  the  reader  will  at  this 
point  halt  us  with  an  objection.  He  may  tell  us  that  in  an 
earlier  chapter  we  referred  to  the  home  study  as  essentially 
application,  whereas  in  the  present  chapter  it  seems  to  in- 
volve nearly  all  phases  of  learning  and  feeling.  The  discrep- 
ancy is  but  seeming,  however,  as  an  examination  of  the  rela- 
tion of  application  to  learning  and  feeling  will  show.  When 
a  student,  having  learned  a  process  or  fact,  employs  that 
process  or  fact  in  dealing  with  various  cases  similar  to  that 
whence  the  learning  was  derived,  he  is  applying  what  he  has 
learned.  This  application  may  assume  various  forms,  such 
as  working  examples,  writing  essays,  translating,  etc.  In 
each  case,  however,  the  application  usually  consists  of  solv- 
ing problems  or  appreciating  writings  by  employing  the 
method  learned  in  the  class  exercise.  Thus,  the  home  study, 
while  an  application  of  what  has  been  learned,  is  at  the  same 
time  the  meeting  of  other,  though  similar,  situations,  and  as 
such  calls  for  essentially  the  same  procedure,  whether  prob- 
lematic or  appreciation.  Thus  an  activity  may  at  the  same 
time  be  the  solution  of  the  problem  and  the  application  of  a 
method  of  solution,  in  that  the  pupil  solves  by  the  method 
learned.1 

Home  study  may  thus  in  a  double  sense  be  application, 
whether  it  be  of  what  was  learned  in  class  or  of  what  was 
learned  in  the  study  itself.  Thus  the  boy  may  learn  in  class 
how  to  factor  the  difference  of  two  squares  and  apply  the 
method  to  a  series  of  home-study  exercises,  or  he  may  in  his 
home  study  by  class-taught  methods  derive  a  mathematical 
formula  and  then  apply  it  to  appropriate  exercises.  For 
application  in  both  these  senses,  the  suggestions  for  home- 
study  application  are  intended. 

Since  a  function  of  application  is  to  give  the  fact  or  prin- 
ciple or  process  a  broad  significance,  it  follows  that  the  appli- 
cation should  be  made  to  a  wide  variety  of  exercises  or  cases. 
This  is  in  part  secured  by  a  well-chosen  lesson  assignment. 

1  Cf.  p.  195- 


PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

The  student,  however,  should  be  encouraged  to  seek  or  in- 
vent as  many  concrete  applications  of  what  he  has  learned 
as  possible.  It  is  far  more  helpful  to  devise  one  application 
than  to  recognize  two  ready-made  ones.  For  the  same 
reason,  he  should  endeavor  to  correlate  what  he  has  learned 
with  as  many  other  facts  of  his  knowledge  as  he  can.  The 
fact  learned  in  physics  will  mean  much  more  if  he  sees  its 
significance  in  explaining  a  hitherto  puzzling  phenomenon  in 
botany  or  physical  geography.  The  student  who  follows 
these  two  suggestions  will  by  so  doing  stumble  upon  a  sur- 
prising number  of  new  and  suggestive  ideas. 

It  need  hardly  be  pointed  out  that  application  should  be 
intelligent  and  that  pupils  should  be  taught  that  true  appli- 
cation is  that  of  thought  and  not  of  form  only.  Not  infre- 
quently pupils  work  examples  or  apply  processes  by  imita- 
tion. Effort  must  be  made  to  render  this  habit  unprofitable, 
and  to  develop  an  unwillingness  to  do  formally  that  which 
is  not  understood. 

Expression. — Expression  naturally  plays  a  smaller  part  in 
study  than  does  application,  yet  often  a  considerable  one. 
Evidently  nearly  all  that  can  be  done  for  its  training  is  that 
of  the  regular  class  work.  The  preparation  of  essays  and 
reports  provides  the  home  study  basis  for  it,  and  these  are 
properly  the  object  of  classroom  criticism  and  correction.  It 
follows  that  the  neglect  of  the  form  of  expression  in  any  sub- 
ject, whether  English  or  history  or  physics,  will  produce  bad 
habits,  and  in  the  case  of  reports  based  upon  study,  good 
expression  should  be  demanded.  At  the  same  tune,  the  pupil 
should  be  impressed  with  the  idea  that  careless  expression  in 
that  which  he  in  study  prepares  for  his  own  use  only  is  quite 
as  harmful  as  carelessness  in  reports  for  the  class  exercise. 
He  should  realize  that  expression  is  largely  a  matter  of  habit, 
and  that  all  of  his  expression,  whether  for  the  class  or  for 
himself,  plays  a  part  in  the  formation  of  that  habit. 

Conditions  for  Study.— The  conditions  for  study  have 
more  influence  upon  its  efficiency  for  school  children  than 


STUDY  AS   SELF-TEACHING  237 

for  adults.  Moreover,  those  conditions  are  as  a  rule  less 
under  their  control,  and  children  with  their  limited  experience 
and  sense  of  responsibility  do  not  usually  make  the  best  use 
of  the  conditions  that  surround  them.  Upon  the  school, 
therefore,  devolves  the  obligation  to  provide  the  best  possible 
conditions  for  study,  and  at  the  same  time  to  train  the 
pupils  to  the  best  use  of  those  conditions. 

Recent  investigations  have  confirmed  a  fact  long  known 
to  teachers — that  the  home  conditions  for  out-of -school  study 
are  seldom  good,  and  that  students  are  often  unwise  in  their 
selection  of  lessons  for  home  study.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
study  room  of  the  typical  high  school  falls  far  short  of  being 
an  ideal  place  for  study.  The  physical  essentials  of  the 
good  study  hall,  such  as  good  ventilation  and  lighting,  quiet 
and  orderliness,  and  the  avoidance  of  physical  and  mental 
fatigue,  are  topics  lying  in  the  domain  of  educational  hygiene 
and  administration  rather  than  of  method  of  instruction. 
With  a  properly  administered  study  hall,  however,  it  is  obvi- 
ous that  the  conditions  for  study  are  as  a  rule  better  than 
those  of  the  average  home,  and  that  there  is  normally  the 
place  for  the  preparation  of  lessons  calling  for  the  highest 
degree  of  concentration. 

Physical  Conditions. — Over  the  physical  conditions  for 
home  study,  however,  the  pupil  has  a  considerable  degree  of 
control,  especially  if  he  realizes  their  importance  and  is  deter- 
mined to  secure  them.  Teaching  to  study  may  profitably 
include  teaching  pupils  the  control  of  study  conditions. 
Clearly,  health  is  a  first  desideratum,  and  may  be  shown  to 
depend  much  upon  regularity  of  habits  of  work  and  recrea- 
tion, abundance  of  sleep  (preferably  evening  rather  than  late 
morning  sleep),  nourishing  food,  abstinence  from  hard  work 
or  study  immediately  after  eating,  and  plenty  of  well-regu- 
lated out-of-door  exercise.  All  of  these  tend  to  produce 
clear  heads,  ready  thought,  and  a  favorable  disposition  toward 
work. 

Whether  students  should  be  encouraged  to  study  always 


238  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

alone  or  in  groups  of  two  or  more  is  a  practical  and  puzzling 
question  to  many  a  teacher.  Certain  it  is  that  under  favor- 
able conditions  the  group  study  stimulates  thought  which 
would  never  occur  to  the  student  working  alone.  The  dan- 
gers, on  the  other  hand,  are  two:  a  habit  of  dependence  in 
work  on  the  part  of  the  weaker  student,  and  a  frittering  away 
of  time  in  conversation  on  extraneous  topics.  If  students 
can  be  trained  to  appreciate  the  importance  of  independence 
in  thought,  the  spirit  of  true  helpfulness,  and  the  supreme 
importance  of  concentration  upon  the  task  in  hand,  the  value 
of  group  study  in  subjects  offering  opportunity  for  discussion 
is  certainly  great.  The  author's  experience  is  that  the  train- 
ing of  students  to  do  group  study  with  profit  demands  pa- 
tience, sympathy,  and  watchfulness,  but  that  in  most  cases  re- 
sults can  be  attained  which  more  than  repay  the  effort  made. 
Of  the  value  and  right  use  of  time  in  study,  pupils  have 
usually  very  slight  appreciation.  One  need  but  watch  stu- 
dents in  the  typical  study  hall  to  be  convinced  of  the  enor- 
mous waste  which  characterizes  their  efforts,  and  necessarily 
becomes  habitual  with  them.  Much  time  is  lost  in  getting 
started,  due  in  part  to  a  failure  to  catch  the  significance  of 
the  work  confronting  them,  and  in  larger  part  perhaps  to 
bad  habits  of  work.  They  fail  to  realize  that  the  first  min- 
utes of  the  study  hour  are  fully  as  valuable  as  the  last. 
Closely  related  is  the  lack  of  systematic  planning  of  work  to 
be  done.  A  glimpse  at  one  lesson,  a  spasmodic  attack  upon 
another,  and  a  superficial  survey  of  a  third,  and  the  pupil 
finds  the  hour  gone  with  little  or  nothing  accomplished. 
One  of  the  fundamental  lessons  to  be  taught  high  school 
boys  and  girls  is  the  importance  of  regular  fixed  hours  for 
specific  tasks  and  the  employment  of  those  hours  to  the  best 
advantage.  Experience  has  shown  the  great  benefit  derived 
from  the  establishment  of  definite  schedules  of  study  for 
school  children.  W.  C.  Reavis1  finds  that,  by  having  each 

1(<The  Importance  of  a  Study  Program  for  High  School  Pupils,"  in 
School  Review,  vol.  XIX,  pp.  398-405. 


STUDY  AS   SELF-TEACHING  239 

pupil  work  out  and  adhere  to  a  regular  study  programme,  the 
students  get  their  work  more  expeditiously,  study  more 
steadily,  distribute  their  efforts  more  appropriately,  get  their 
lessons  better,  and  have  more  time  left  for  extra-scholastic 
activities.  Thus  they  can  be  led  to  evaluate  time,  to  form 
judgments  as  to  how  much  an  hour  of  study  should  effect, 
and  to  realize  the  advantage  of  intense  effort  and  concen- 
trated attention.  Setting  a  time  limit  upon  the  performance 
of  a  piece  of  work  usually  provides  a  stimulus  to  steady  and 
intensive  study. 

In  general  it  is  better  for  a  class  to  study  a  lesson  immedi- 
ately after  its  assignment.  At  that  time  its  development 
and  the  meaning  of  the  assignment  are  still  fresh  in  mind, 
and  the  interest  in  the  material  has  not  been  dissipated  by 
intervening  interests.  A  second  advantage  is  that  the  fullest 
opportunity  will  be  provided  for  the  reference  to  library, 
museum,  etc.,  for  data  needed  in  the  lesson  preparation. 
Further,  such  a  plan  prevents  the  too  common  practice  of 
hastily  and  superficially  preparing  a  lesson  just  before  the 
recitation  upon  it,  although  a  rapid  review  at  that  tune  of 
a  lesson  already  mastered  serves  to  renew  impressions  and 
should  be  encouraged. 

Mental  Conditions. — Of  the  mental  conditions  for  study, 
whether  at  home  or  at  school,  the  most  fundamental  is  evi- 
dently attention.  We  need  no  psychologist  to  tell  us  that 
when  we  attend  we  observe  more  quickly,  learn  more  easily, 
and  remember  better.  How  to  secure  and  hold  attention  is 
something  which  not  only  the  teacher  but  the  pupil  also 
would  like  to  know,  and  suggestions  on  the  subject  will  be 
welcomed  by  any  serious-minded  student. 

Study  is  not  sitting  and  staring  at  a  book,  while  thinking 
of  other  things,  but  involves  holding  the  thought  to  the 
topic  under  consideration.  Possibly  the  greatest  waste  in 
study  occurs  in  the  form  of  dawdling,  due  largely  to  a  failure 
to  concentrate  attention  upon  work.  Recalling  what  was  said 
in  Chapter  II,  we  must  interpret  most  of  this  difficulty  in 


240  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

terms  of  interest.  When  a  lesson  makes  no  appeal  to  a  stu- 
dent, it  is  but  natural  that  other  subjects,  in  themselves  of 
little  significance,  should  prove  more  interesting  than  the 
lesson  and  attract  his  attention  to  themselves.  The  solution 
of  the  difficulty  must  be  sought  in  two  directions.  In  the 
first  place,  the  student  must  be  trained  to  isolate  himself 
from  the  distractions,  partly  by  selecting  an  environment 
with  a  minimum  of  distracting  forces,  partly  by  determinedly 
and  completely  ignoring  them  and  thus  rendering  them  in- 
different. This  might  be  called  concentration  of  attention 
by  means  of  negation.  The  second  and  positive  solution 
reaches  back  into  the  instruction  of  the  class  exercise,  and  is 
based  on  the  principle  that  the  thing  given  the  pupil  to  do 
must  appeal  to  him  as  worth  while.  When  he  feels  the  chal- 
lenge of  a  problem,  and  wants  to  find  out  or  think  out  some- 
thing, when  his  feeling  is  really  aroused  by  his  reading,  the 
temptation  to  attend  to  other  things  will  not  arise.  The 
teacher  must  realize  that  not  merely  the  content  of  the  lesson 
but  its  form  as  well  plays  a  large  part  in  rendering  its  prep- 
aration interesting.  Young  people  love  action,  and  provi- 
sion for  activity  must  be  made  in  the  assignment.  They 
must  be  given  something  to  do,  even  though  the  doing  in- 
volve an  activity  which  of  itself  offers  little  value.  Pupils 
in  their  study  usually  make  too  little  use  of  paper  and  pencil, 
largely  because  the  form  of  the  assignment  offers  no  occasion 
for  their  use.  It  is  well,  therefore,  to  let  the  assignment 
provide  not  only  opportunity  but  occasion  for  written  work. 
Encouraging  pupils  to  outline  the  lesson  and  to  summarize 
it  in  writing  at  the  close  of  their  study  is  thus  advantageous, 
for  the  sake  of  the  activity  as  well  as  for  other  considerations 
already  mentioned.  For  the  same  reason  students  should  be 
urged  and  trained  to  invent  and  introduce  in  their  study 
devices  for  the  employment  of  writing,  not  alone  for  the 
definiteness  of  thought  thus  encouraged,  but  because  the 
activity  facilitates  mental  concentration.  By  the  introduc- 
tion of  this  and  other  forms  of  activity,  a  mediate  interest 
may  be  provided  to  reinforce  the  immediate. 


STUDY  AS  SELF-TEACHING  241 

Perhaps  the  hardest  part  of  study  is  getting  started. 
The  dread  of  the  task  postpones  its  undertaking,  and  but 
adds  to  its  unpleasantness  by  creating  an  unfavorable  mood 
toward  it.  Let  us  teach  and  urge  our  pupils  to  plunge  in 
immediately,  and  not  stand  shivering  on  the  bank.  Begin 
at  once  by  doing  something,  and  the  more  active  it  is  the 
better  it  will  bring  the  mind  to  attention.  It  takes  time  to 
"warm  up"  to  the  work,  and  this  activity  will  help  to  hold 
the  attention  during  this  warming-up  period. 

But  attention  is  a  fickle  servant,  and  is  prone  to  go  on 
strike  on  slight  provocation.  Fatigue  is  its  favorite  pretext 
for  quitting,  and  in  such  case  there  are  two  courses  open.  If 
possible,  drive  it  back  to  its  task,  in  the  hope  that  it  will 
"get  its  second  wind,"  and  will  quite  forget  if  not  negate 
fatigue.  Too  long  concentration,  however,  will  so  far  fatigue 
as  to  render  attention  impossible.  Forcing  study  when  the 
brain  refuses  to  respond  is  not  merely  useless  but  harmful, 
since  it  unnecessarily  exhausts  the  nervous  system  and  en- 
genders an  attitude  of  distaste  for  the  thing  studied.  A  bet- 
ter method  is  that  of  laying  the  work  aside  for  a  time,  and 
then  returning  to  it  later,  refreshed  in  mind  and  body. 

Viewing  the  process  as  a  whole,  training  the  pupil  to 
study  is  essentially  a  six-step  procedure. 

1.  Use  good  methods  of  thought  in  the  class  exercise. 

2.  Make  the  student  conscious  of  these  methods  as  such. 

3.  Show  him  how  he  can  adapt  these  methods  to  his  own 
needs. 

4.  Secure  favorable  conditions  for  study. 

5.  Guide  him  in  the  initiation  of  good  methods  of  study. 

6.  Insist  on  results  which  only  good  methods  of  study 
can  secure. 

The  fifth  of  these  forms  the  topic  for  the  following  para- 
graph. 

3.    SUPERVISED  STUDY 

Meaning  of  Supervision. — Supervised  study  as  the  term 
is  now  employed  is  primarily  a  plan  for  teaching  to  study. 


242  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

The  placing  of  a  teacher  in  charge  of  a  study  hall  to  maintain 
order  and,  when  able,  to  help  pupils  over  obstacles  in  their 
study,  has  long  been  a  common  practice.  Supervision  of 
study,  however,  converts  the  teacher  in  charge  from  a  mere 
police  officer  into  a  real  instructor.  Instead  of  a  single 
teacher  being  called  upon  to  assist  pupils  with  difficulties  in 
history  and  physics  and  Spanish  and  domestic  science,  it 
means  that  each  teacher  concerns  himself  with  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  lessons  he  has  assigned.  Instead  of  urging  stu- 
dents to  study,  telling  them  how  to  get  desired  answers,  and 
doing  their  work  for  them,  or  too  often  confessing  ignorance 
of  the  subject,  supervised  study  implies  teaching  the  pupils 
how  to  do  their  own  tasks,  helping  when  needed,  and  through- 
out it  all  carrying  out  the  purpose  involved  in  the  assignment. 
Investigations  have  demonstrated  the  advantages  of 
supervised  over  unsupervised  study.1  ft^extends  the  class- 
room instruction  into  the  study  hour,  adapts  it  to  individual 
needs,  and  directs  the  formation  of  correct  habits  of  study,  as 
well  as  enables  the  teacher  to  watch  the  results  of  his  teach- 
ing and  to  supplement  the  instruction  as  needed.  Moving 
about  among  the  class,  he  is  able  to  render  needed  assistance 
in  the  attack  upon  the  lessons,  to  redevelop  and  clear  up  with 
individual  students  points  not  fully  grasped  in  the  class  exer- 
cia^k  to  make  supplementary  assignments  to  those  who  find 
the  regular  assignments  too  easy  or  whose  study  raises  ques- 
tions for  special  investigation^  and  in  short  to  effect  indi- 
vidually the  training  discussed  earlier  in  this  section.  ^  Occa- 
sionally he  may  discover  that  some  point  in  the  lesson  is 
causing  difficulty  for  the  whole  class,  in  which  case  the  study 
may  be  interrupted  and  a  further  general  discussion  or  devel- 
opment of  the  difficult  point  may  be  introduced  before  further 
study  is  attempted. 

1  Cf.  Breslich,  "Thirteenth  Yearbook  of  the  Natioaal  Society  for  the 
Study  of  Education,"  part  I,  pp.  32  ff.;  Judd,  "Psychology  of  High  School 
Subjects,"  chap.  XVIII;  Parker,  "Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools," 
chap.  XVI. 


STUDY  AS   SELF-TEACHING  243 

The  form  and  character  of  the  supervised  study  must 
necessarily  depend  largely  upon  the  subject  matter.  It  is  in 
many  ways  more  exacting  than  the  classroom  instruction, 
offering  constant  temptation  to  tell  rather  than  to  instruct, 
to  encourage  dependence  rather  than  to  develop  initiative. 
Probably  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  there  are  many 
teachers  who  know  how  to  teach  classes  but  few  who  know 
how  to  supervise  study.  High  school  teachers  should  be  en- 
couraged to  find  out  how  their  students  really  study,  instead 
of  shifting  responsibility  or  assuming  that  the  study  is  as 
well  done  as  could  be  expected.  Most  of  our  secondary 
school-teachers  and  administrators  have  yet  to  learn  that 
instruction  includes  both  class  exercise  and  lesson  study. 

Administration. — For  the  administration  of  supervised 
study,  no  single  plan  has  been  generally  accredited,  though 
several  have  been  tried  with  a  goodly  degree  of  success.  One 
plan  jwhich  observation  and  personal  experience  have  com- 
mended to  the  author  is  whatjis  known  as  the  divided  period. 
As  employed  in  many  high  schools,  the  period  is  extended 
to  sixty  or  eighty  minutes,  the  first  part  of  which  is  de- 
voted to  the  regular  class  exercise,  and  the  latter  part  to 
supervised  study,  with  no  fixed  distribution  of  time,  the 
lesson  assignment  shading  off  into  lesson  study  as  the  teacher 
may  find  expedient.  The  marked  advantage  of  this  plan  is 
the  intimate  connection  between  lesson  development,  assign- 
ment, and  study.  I  Even  though  but  twenty  minutes  of  a 
sixty-minute  period  be  left  for  supervised  study,  the  author 
has  found  this  of  great  value,  because  the  greatest  need  for 
supervision  is  at  the  beginning  of  the  lesson  study,  and  the 
very  shortness  of  the  time  makes  the  class  realize  with  added 
force  the  importance  of  losing  no  time  in  attacking  the  lesson 
and  catching  the  essential  principles  while  the  teacher  is  at 
hand  to  render  needed  assistance.  Another  plan  is  the  pro- 
vision for  one  supervised  study  hour  each  day,  the  schedule 
allowing  for  each  subject  one  hour  per  week;  e.  g.,  history  on 
Mondays,  mathematics  on  Tuesdays,  etc.  Other  devices  for 


244  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

study  supervision  are  the  conference  or  office  hour,  the  study 
coach,  and  the  unassigned  teacher.  Various  other  plans  have 
been  devised,  most  of  them  essentially  similar  to  those  men- 
tioned.! 

In  'general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  progress  made  by 
classes  after  first  introducing  supervised  study  is  somewhat 
slow,  but  that  as  the  class  adapts  itself  to  the  system,  the 
subsequent  gain  more  than  offsets  the  first  loss.  This  is,  of 
course,  to  be  expected,  since  the  initial  acquisition  of  power 
has  necessarily  a  slower  tempo  than  its  subsequent  applica- 
tion. Objection,  too,  has  been  raised  that  the  supervision  of 
study  is  expensive,  making  demand  upon  more  of  each  teach- 
er's time  and  effort.  Experience  seems  to  indicate,  however, 
that  such  expense  is  ultimately  less  than  is  usually  supposed.2 
Moreover,  if  account  is  taken  of  increased  efficiency  as  well 
as  increased  pay  roll,  it  is  a  safe  presumption  that  the  plan 
is  an  economy  rather  than  an  extravagance,  since  it  is  so 
much  a  higher  rate  of  return  on  the  investment.  With  the 
development  of  more  effectual  and  possibly  more  economical 
administration,  it  is  reasonable  to  expect  that  another  decade 
will  see  supervised  study  the  rule  rather  than  the  exception 
in  our  better  high  schools. 

4.    SUMMARY 

Study  is  the  school's  best  means  for  developing  initiative 
and  self-control  of  students. 

Good  teaching  is  the  basis  for  good  study,  which  is  essen- 
tially self-teaching.  The  pedagogical  principles  which  hold 
in  recitation,  hi  lesson  development,  and  in  expression-applica- 
tion are  the  principles  of  study.  The  teacher  must  make  the 
pupil  conscious  of  the  methods  of  learning  in  the  class  exer- 

1  The  general  subject  of  the  administration  of  study  supervision  in  sec- 
ondary schools  has  been  well  treated  by  Hall-Quest  in  his  book  bearing 
the  title  "Supervised  Study." 

1  Cf.  Minnich,  in  School  Review,  vol.  XXI,  p.  675. 


STUDY   AS    SELF-TEACHING  245 

cise,  and  must  by  guidance  and  favorable  conditions  help  him 
to  make  these  the  methods  of  his  study. 

Supervised  study  provides  such  assistance   under  various 
forms  of  administration. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Prepare  a  statement  of  all  the  arguments  for  and  against  home 
study  by  high  school  pupils. 

2.  Why  do  not  teachers  more  quickly  recognize  the  need  of  teach- 
ing pupils  to  study? 

3.  What  are  the  symptoms  that  show  that  pupils  do  not  know 
how  to  study? 

4.  Suggest  some  typical  assignments  that  call  for  the  accomplish- 
ing of  results  instead  of  for  the  doing  of  specified  things. 

5.  Would  it  be  well  to  dictate  to  pupils  suggestive  outlines  for 
the  organization  of  lessons  to  be  studied?    If  so,  how  long  should  the 
practice  be  continued? 

6.  Is  it  better  to  tell  pupils  hi  what  books  to  find  needed  informa- 
tion, or  to  let  them  find  out  independently  ?    Why  ? 

7.  Should  pupils  be  encouraged  to  seek  information  and  assistance 
from  teachers  other  than  the  teacher  of  the  subject  ? 

8.  In  showing  pupils  how  to  adapt  the  class-exercise  method  of 
attack  to  their  study,  would  it  be  better  to  do  so  when  the  specific 
topic  is  developed  in  class,  or  to  give  them  occasional  instruction  on 
the  use  of  such  methods  in  general? 

9.  What  are  the  advantages  of  having  pupils  keep  a  file  of  the 
papers  they  prepare  as  home-study  exercises? 

10.  Observe  your  routine  of  work  and  study  for  one  or  two  days, 
and  see  what  conditions  surrounding  your  study  are  favorable,  what 
are  unfavorable.     How  far  are  you  able  to  concentrate  your  atten- 
tion despite  bodily  discomfort?    Despite  distracting  environment? 
How  much  time  do  you  waste  getting  started  ? 

n.  Into  what  dangers  is  the  inexperienced  teacher  most  likely  to 
fall  when  undertaking  the  supervision  of  study? 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READINGS 

Strayer,  "Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process,"  chap.  VIII. 
Rickard,  "High  School  Students'  Description  of  Their  Methods  of 

Study,"  in  School  Review,  December,  1915. 
Giles,  "Investigation  of  Study  Habits  of  High  School  Students,"  in 

School  Review,  September,  1914. 


246  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

Zimmers,  "Teaching  Boys  and  Girls  How  to  Study." 

Earhart,  "Teaching  Children  to  Study." 

Hinsdale,  "Art  of  Study." 

McMurray,  "How  to  Study  and  Teaching  How  to  Study,"  especially 

chap.  XI. 

Parker,  "Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools,"  chap.  XVI. 
Colvin,  "An  Introduction  to  High  School  Teaching,"  chap.  XVII. 
Starch,  "Educational  Psychology,"  chap.  XXII. 
Judd,  "Psychology  of  High  School  Subjects,"  chap.  XVIII. 
Kitson,  "How  to  Use  Your  Mind." 
Whipple,  "How  to  Study  Effectively." 
Bolton,  "Principles  of  Education,"  pp.  262-280. 
Johnston,  ed.,  "Modern  High  School";  chap.  X  on  "The  Direction  of 

Study  as  the  Chief  Aim  of  the  High  School,"  by  Hall-Quest;  and 

chap.  XI  on  "  Social  Value  of  School  Study  vs.  Home  Study,"  by 

Wiener. 

Hall-Quest,  "Supervised  Study." 
Roberts,  "Supervised  Study  in  the  Everett  High  School,"  in  School 

Review,  December,  1916. 
Rapeer,  "Educational  Hygiene,"  chap.  XXX. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
LESSON  ORGANIZATION 

i.    SIGNIFICANCE  OF  ORGANIZATION 

In  the  preceding  chapters  the  work  of  instruction  has 
been  treated  as  falling  under  five  modes,  each  fairly  definite 
in  character,  yet  frequently  not  distinguishable  from  the 
others,  and  at  times  overlapping  upon  them.  The  attempt 
has  been  made  to  show  that  any  step  hi  the  regular  instruc- 
tion of  the  secondary  school  can  be  viewed  as  one  or  more  of 
these  five  modes,  and  it  was  further  seen  that  the  instruction 
was  usually  more  effectual  because  better  adapted  to  a  definite 
aim  when  each  step  was  undertaken  principally  or  wholly  as 
a  single  mode.  At  the  same  time,  however,  the  teacher  must 
not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  these  steps  are  not  units  hi 
themselves,  but  are  merely  parts  of  the  greater  whole,  the 
elements  out  of  which  the  lesson  as  a  unit  is  to  be  built  up. 

In  the  same  way,  and  for  the  same  reason,  the  modes 
are  not  methods,  but  the  components  of  methods.  The  method 
involves  a  selection  and  combination  of  modes,  with  the  vari- 
ous components  in  varying  proportion,  and  with  a  variety  of 
content.  Method  is  thus  not  mechanical  or  rigid,  but  is  in- 
finitely various,  as  its  components  may  be  variously  chosen, 
combined,  and  accented.  Good  method  is  that  in  which  the 
modes  are  so  chosen  and  combined  as  best  to  accomplish  the 
particular  aim  of  the  lesson,  an  aim  which  the  subject  matter 
as  well  as  the  child's  needs  must  determine. 

Recognizing  the  fact  that  the  term  "lesson"  is  to  be  ap- 
plied not  merely  to  the  material  to  be  taught  but  as  well  to 
the  teaching  of  it,  it  follows  that  the  organizing  of  the  lesson 
with  a  view  to  teaching  it  involves  the  synthetic  application 
of  ah1  the  principles  of  instruction,  and  as  such  lies  at  the 
basis  of  all  effectual  teaching. 

247 


248  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

2.    THE  LESSON  PLAN 

Importance. — A  well-executed  purpose  demands  a  well- 
formed  plan.  The  teacher,  preparing  for  the  class  exercise, 
must  do  more  than  know  his  subject  matter  and  trust  to  in- 
spiration for  his  method,  for  inspiration  is  a  fickle  servant, 
frequently  blundering,  and  more  frequently  off  duty.  The 
preparation  of  an  adequate  lesson  plan  demands  much  pains 
and  time,  but  without  it  teaching  is  prone  to  deteriorate  into 
school-keeping.  At  the  risk  of  repetition,  it  will  be  worth 
while  to  suggest  a  few  fundamental  principles  which  may  aid 
the  teacher  in  formulating  his  lesson  plans  and  building  up 
his  methods  of  instruction. 

The  heart  of  the  lesson  is  the  development.  It  is  there 
that  the  new  material  of  the  instruction  is  brought  home  to 
the  pupil,  and  the  other  modes,  recitation,  expression-applica- 
tion, and  laboratory,  are  for  the  sake  of  rendering  the  con- 
tent complete,  usable,  and  permanent.  It  is  there  that  the 
planning  of  the  lesson  must  therefore  begin. 

Lesson  Aim. — Naturally  a  definite  lesson  aim  must  be  de- 
termined at  the  outset;  one  to  which  the  content  is  adapted 
and  which  fits  in  with  the  preceding  and  succeeding  lessons. 
Taking  account  of  the  aims  suggested  in  Chapter  III,  and  of 
their  special  application  to  the  content  of  the  lesson,  the 
teacher  must  ask  himself:  "Just  what  is  to  be  the  product  of 
this  lesson  ?  How  is  it  to  function  in  the  development  of  my 
pupils,  in  view  of  what  they  have  learned  and  are  to  learn  ?  " 
Nor  should  we  forget  that  the  aim  of  a  lesson  is  not  wholly 
determined  by  its  content.  The  same  problem  or  topic  may 
for  different  teachers,  with  different  pupils,  and  in  different 
contexts  serve  quite  different  purposes,  depending  upon  choice 
of  material  employed  and  method  followed. 

Content. — Thus,  the  second  step  in  the  organization  of  a 
lesson  might  be  the  selection  of  the  content  to  be  employed 
in  its  treatment.  This  involves  far  more  than  the  collection 
of  all  available  material  bearing  upon  the  subject.  Nearly 


LESSON  ORGANIZATION  249 

always  there  is  far  more  material  which  is  relevant  and  in  it- 
self good  teaching  material  than  can  be  used.  Moreover, 
much  that  is  excellent  must  be  sacrificed  for  something  in- 
ferior in  quality  but  better  adapted  to  specific  purposes. 
However,  the  lesson  plan  must  not  discard  such,  but  include 
it  as  a  kind  of  reserve,  to  be  drawn  upon  if  demanded  by  some 
unexpected  situation  in  the  class  exercise.  The  want  of  such 
material  restricts  the  teacher  to  the  one  anticipated  procedure, 
often  at  the  sacrifice  of  the  spontaneity  of  the  class. 

Next,  the  thought  must  be  organized.  Logical  and  psy- 
chological organization  are  two  very  different  things,  based 
upon  subject  matter  and  student  mind  respectively.  In  the 
teacher's  own  study,  the  logical  organization  is  the  first  step, 
since  he  must  thereby  gain  an  adequate  conception  of  the 
bearings  and  relationships  of  ideas  involved,  and  of  their  rela- 
tive importance.  Then,  however,  he  must  reconstruct  the 
whole  from  the  viewpoint  of  the  learning  process.  It  must 
be  reorganized  hi  the  form  in  which  the  student,  knowing 
what  he  does,  can  most  naturally  proceed  in  the  lesson  devel- 
opment. Here  each  point  should  be  distinct,  allowing  for  a 
step-by-step  procedure,  and  should  have  a  real  function  in 
the  realization  of  the  lesson  aim,  including  the  point  or  points 
to  be  made  by  the  development.  Here  the  teacher  should 
not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  what  is  organic  to  him,  as  its 
organizer,  may  be  confused  and  disconnected  to  his  pupils, 
who  lack  both  his  viewpoint  and  his  power  of  analysis.  How 
much  of  our  teaching  fails  because  our  students  do  not  see 
the  seemingly  obvious  organization  of  our  points !  Provision 
must  be  made  for  such  variations  of  plan  as  the  classroom 
development  may  demand,  yet  with  the  limitation  that  such 
variations  should  be  of  procedure  rather  than  of  aim,  and 
should  not  occur  unless  the  advantage  secured  by  the  change 
more  than  exceeds  that  of  following  the  plan  for  which  prepa- 
ration had  been  made. 

Questions. — Lesson  development  implies  student  activity 
and  participation.  It  must  always  proceed  from  a  conscious 


PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

want  to  its  realization,  and  the  rendering  conscious  of  such 
wants  is  the  function  of  the  question.  The  formulation  of 
stimulating  questions,  well  aimed  and  expressed,  is  far  from 
easy,  and  should  not  be  left  wholly  to  the  inspiration  of  the 
class  exercise.  Such  questions  are  the  product  of  study  and 
thought,  to  which  the  varied  demands  of  the  class  exercise 
are  not  conducive.  While  it  is  true  that  the  course  of  the 
lesson  thought  cannot  be  wholly  anticipated,  it  is  none  the 
less  true  that  those  questions  whereby  new  topics  or  lines  of 
thought  are  introduced  are  to  a  degree  independent,  and  can 
usually  be  prepared  in  advance.  Such  might  be  called 
"pivotal  questions,"  and  upon  their  formulation  the  trend 
and  the  success  of  the  lesson  development  largely  depend. 

Expression-Application. — To  the  problematic,  and  still 
more  the  appreciation,  mode  of  development  the  expression- 
application  mode  is  so  closely  related  as  often  to  overlap 
them,  and  in  a  measure  to  appear  thror  Hout  the  entire  class 
exercise.  However,  this  should  not  resuJt  in  the  expression- 
application  being  neglected  or  wholly  absorbed  by  the  de- 
velopment or  recitation  procedure.  Not  infrequently  it  may 
occupy  a  considerable  portion  of  the  class  hour.  On  the  other 
hand,  its  position  at  the  close  of  the  period  subjects  it  to  the 
danger  of  being  prematurely  terminated.  Lesson  develop- 
ment necessarily  requires  time;  usually  more  time  than  the 
beginning  teacher  expects.  Accordingly  expression-applica- 
tion must  be  given  a  real  and  definite  place  in  the  lesson  plan, 
and  specific  provision  should  be  made  for  the  details  of  its 
procedure  such  as  in  board  or  seat  work,  or  class  discussion. 

Assignment. — The  lesson  assignment  is  the  connecting- 
link  between  two  class  exercises.  It  determines  almost 
wholly  the  plan  of  the  next  day's  recitation  procedure,  as 
well  as  the  student's  independent  study  outside  the  range  of 
the  teacher's  direct  influence  and  aid.  Once  made,  it  must 
abide.  The  teacher  in  planning  the  assignment  must,  there- 
fore, see  it  through  in  its  entirety,  anticipating  and  measuring 
its  difficulties  and  planning  both  the  form  and  the  amount 


LESSON  ORGANIZATION  25 1 

of  the  assignment  with  these  in  view.  Before  the  assignment 
is  made,  he  must  himself,  ideally  if  not  actually,  prepare  the 
lesson  he  proposes  to  assign,  constantly  asking  himself  re- 
garding the  pupil's  fitness  to  do  intelligently  what  is  required. 
Is  this  process,  this  knowledge,  this  concept  already  in  the 
pupil's  possession?  Has  he  access  in  his  home  study  to  the 
sources,  references,  and  materials  involved  ?  If  not,  the  need 
for  such  must  be  met  in  making  the  assignment,  so  that, 
undertaking  his  lesson  preparation  at  home,  he  will  not  en- 
counter a  need  which  blocks  or  hinders  his  preparation. 
How  long  will  it  take,  not  the  teacher  but  the  pupil,  for  the 
preparation  of  such  a  lesson? 

Recitation. — The  day  following  the  assignment  the  reci- 
tation mode  completes  the  cycle  of  thought  which  began  with 
the  preceding  development.  It  must,  therefore,  really  com- 
plete it,  so  that  further  reference  to  its  content  occurs  only  as 
a  review  or  as  a  part  of  the  development  of  further  content. 
This  may  therefore  involve,  especially  in  mathematics  and 
the  languages,  the  extension  of  the  recitation  procedure 
through  the  entire  hour  or  even  longer.  In  such  prolonged 
recitation  procedure  there  should  be  a  degree  of  advance- 
ment in  thought,  with  an  increasing  degree  of  complexity  and 
implication,  to  secure  both  broader  interpretation  and  con- 
tinued interest.  The  recitation  mode  is,  in  a  way,  a  recon- 
struction of  the  previous  development.  Yet  because  of  its 
being  a  reconstruction,  most  of  the  background  and  details, 
the  scaffolding  of  the  original  construction,  will  be  omitted. 
It  may  also  recall  data  of  previous  study,  for  purposes  of  re- 
view, for  connecting  it  with  the  new  material  just  studied 
and  to  complete  the  foundation  for  the  new  lesson  develop- 
ment immediately  to  follow. 

The  recitation  mode  has,  as  we  have  already  seen,  a  two- 
fold reference:  as  a  reciting  upon  the  previous  day's  assign- 
ment, and  as  a  propaedeutic  for  the  development  of  the  day's 
lesson.  The  preparation  of  the  lesson  plan,  therefore,  must 
take  account  of  these  two  functions.  In  the  first  place  it 


252  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

must  recall  the  lesson  developed  on  the  previous  day,  with  the 
assignment  and  its  application,  and  must  provide  for  ade- 
quate drill  and  test  upon  it  as  well  as  for  its  amplification  and 
enrichment  as  needed.  Problems  and  lines  of  questioning 
must  be  devised  which  will,  without  going  into  detail,  probe 
for  the  vital  points  in  the  previous  lessons  and  draw  out  the 
student's  expression  upon  them.  Secondly,  the  teacher  must 
scrutinize  again  the  plan  for  the  day's  development  procedure, 
looking  for  all  points  wherein  the  products  of  the  pupil's  pre- 
vious study  are  presupposed.  Then,  in  so  far  as  opportunity 
offers  and  occasion  justifies,  he  must  make  provision  in  the 
recitation  procedure  for  the  refreshing  of  the  pupils'  memory 
and  power  as  involved,  thus  realizing  the  propaedeutic  func- 
tion of  the  recitation.  In  most  cases,  with  well-organized 
subject  matter  and  a  logical  sequence  of  work,  these  two 
phases  of  recitation  procedure  will  blend  naturally,  since  the 
best  preparation  for  the  development  of  the  new  lesson  will 
be  a  recitation  upon  the  old  one. 

Laboratory. — The  use  of  the  laboratory  mode  does  not 
necessarily  mean  a  distinct  procedure  under  that  name.  It 
may  be  a  part  of  the  lesson  preparation  with  the  students 
working  in  library,  laboratory,  museum,  field,  or  even  at 
home.  For  high  school  pupils,  especially  in  the  sciences, 
care  must  be  taken  that  the  laboratory  work  does  not  cleave 
off  from  the  classroom  work  and  become  for  the  class  a  course 
by  itself,  only  remotely  related  to  the  class  exercise.  As  we 
have  already  seen,  it  may  even,  as  in  Domestic  Science,  form 
a  large  part  of  the  class  exercise  itself. 

The  lesson  plan,  therefore,  must  see  each  unit  of  content 
through  its  entire  course  from  its  development,  through  its 
expression-application,  its  laboratory  (if  involved),  and  its 
recitation,  and  must  even  make  provision  for  its  merging  into 
the  development  of  the  next  content.  In  this  way  the  work 
of  instruction  is  rendered  organic  and  unitary,  and  for  the 
student,  as  well  as  the  teacher,  the  course  does  not  disintegrate 
into  an  accumulation  of  unrelated  facts. 


LESSON  ORGANIZATION  253, 

Organization  and  Unity. — Thus,  a  lesson  plan  might  well 
include  such  elements  as  a  well-formulated  aim,  an  outline  of 
the  thought  and  method  of  the  recitation,  development,  and 
application,  with  the  pivotal  questions  and  occasional  sum- 
maries to  be  employed  in  them,  supplementary  material  and 
references  which  may  be  of  use,  and  the  proposed  assignment. 
In  the  plan,  especially  in  the  recitation  procedure,  it  might 
be  well  to  indicate  those  points  upon  which  it  is  intended  to 
assist  or  question  individual  students  as  knowledge  of  their 
particular  needs  and  capacities  has  shown  it  desirable.  With- 
out sacrificing  elasticity  and  adaptability  in  procedure,  the 
teacher  should  have  a  fairly  definite  idea  of  the  form  and  dis- 
tribution of  activity,  such  as  questioning,  seat  work,  and 
board  work,  and  of  the  distribution  of  time  in  the  class  exer- 
cise, as  based  upon  the  relative  importance  and  the  teaching 
difficulties  of  the  various  parts  of  the  lesson. 

Young  teachers  often  ask  that  an  illustrative  lesson  plan 
be  shown  them  to  pattern  from.  The  author's  experience, 
however,  is  that  with  such  plans  suggested  there  is  often  too 
much  patterning  at  the  cost  of  originality  and  suggestion. 
The  lesson  plan  is  merely  one's  formulation  of  his  intentions; 
it  is  peculiarly  personal,  and  will  vary  widely  with  different 
teachers  and  different  subject  matter.  In  the  Appendix  the 
reader  will  find  the  plans  of  a  few  lessons,  some  of  which  the 
author  saw  employed  in  the  schoolroom,  and  which  may 
serve  to  suggest  to  the  inexperienced  teacher  how  the  prin- 
ciples suggested  above  may  be  applied.  The  teachers  who 
prepared  the  plans  were  not  perfect  teachers  (none  such  exist), 
but  the  plans  suggested  have  at  least  the  merit  of  being  taken 
from  the  high  school  classroom,  instead  of  from  the  profes- 
sorial chair. 

The  thought  which  we  have  endeavored  to  emphasize 
throughout  the  preceding  pages  is  that  of  freedom  and  indi- 
vidual initiative  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  yet  an  intelligent 
freedom  based  on  a  knowledge  of  the  materials  he  uses.  If, 
as  he  paints,  the  artist-teacher  occasionally  steps  back  and 


254  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

views  the  work  he  has  done,  the  results  of  his  efforts  and  ex- 
periments, and  strives  ever  to  remedy  defects  and  broaden 
his  field  of  endeavor,  he  will  acquire  skill  in  mixing  his  pig- 
ments and  applying  them  for  the  realization  of  his  design. 
Knowledge  of  the  pigments  and  a  few  fundamental  laws  of 
color-mixture  we  have  endeavored  to  supply.  The  design 
must  be  his  own. 


3.    SUMMARIES  IN  THE  LESSON 

Importance. — The  organization  of  a  lesson  is  far  more 
obvious  to  the  teacher  who  organizes  it  than  to  the  student 
who  sees  only  the  lesson  after  its  organization.  The  sum- 
mary, mentioned  on  page  253,  is  essentially  a  condensed  re- 
statement or  skeleton  of  the  material  in  such  form  that  its 
organization  and  perspective  are  rendered  obvious  and  defi- 
nite to  the  student.  At  the  same  time,  it  serves  as  a  kind  of 
review  of  what  has  just  been  treated,  thus  securing  greater 
permanency  of  its  acquisition. 

The  summary  thus  serves  as  a  most  effectual  teaching 
device  in  the  recitation,  and  even  more  in  the  development. 
For  the  student  it  converts  a  mass  of  data  into  a  systematic 
unity,  with  each  part  significant  in  the  plan  of  the  whole,  and 
the  incidental  distinguished  from  the  fundamental. 

Requirements. — It  follows,  therefore,  that  the  good  sum- 
mary shall  contain  only  essentials,  rather  than  details,  its 
points  shall  be  really  significant  statements  rather  than  para- 
graph titles,  and  that  these  shall  be  so  worded  as  to  impress 
the  central  thought  directly  and  clearly  upon  the  student's 
mind.  Its  logical  place  in  the  lesson  will  be  at  the  completion 
of  a  large  and  complex  unit  of  thought,  surely  at  the  comple- 
tion of  the  development  procedure.  A  development  which 
does  not  culminate  in  a  summary  is  in  grave  danger  of  dis- 
integration and  loss. 

In  so  far  as  possible  the  lesson  summary  should  be  the 
work  of  the  class  rather  than  of  the  teacher.  While  the 


LESSON   ORGANIZATION  255 

latter  should  have  his  own  summary  in  mind,  his  purpose 
must  be  to  develop  a  summary  with  the  class,  thus  training 
them  in  evaluative  judgment  as  well  as  in  orderly  thinking. 
Moreover,  a  summary  which  they  have  helped  formulate  will 
be  far  more  easy  to  remember.  Having  in  mind  his  own 
summary,  doubtless  more  complete  and  logical  than  theirs, 
he  is  to  assist  his  pupils  by  question  and  suggestion  only 
in  so  far  as  they  of  themselves  fail  to  secure  adequate  re- 
sults. 

Naturally,  in  the  development  of  a  summary,  the  black- 
board will  appeal  strongly  to  the  teacher,  since  it  facilitates 
the  showing  of  relationships.  Finally,  when  completed,  the 
summary  in  its  approved  form  should  be  copied  by  the  pupils 
in  suitable  notebooks,  to  be  of  service  to  them  for  subsequent 
study  and  reference. 

4.    REVIEW  AND  THE  REVIEW  LESSON 

Character. — The  foregoing  paragraphs  have  had  special 
reference  to  the  typical  lesson  in  which  new  material  forms 
the  central  and  dominating  part.  There  is,  however,  another 
type  of  lesson  or  lesson  procedure  which  deals  primarily  and 
almost  wholly  with  material  already  studied.  Such  is  the 
review,  whether  as  the  review  lesson  or  as  the  review  proce- 
dure as  a  part  of  a  lesson.  Moreover,  in  well-ordered  teaching 
the  review  lesson  will  play  a  small  part  indeed,  since  the  re- 
view activity  should  function  largely  in  nearly  every  lesson. 
It  has  already  been  shown  that  it  is  better  to  revive  memories 
often,  even  though  briefly,  than  to  do  so  at  long  intervals, 
however  intensively.  And  true  review  as  thus  conducted  is 
more  than  a  revival,  it  is  also  an  expansion  and  reapplication. 
Whenever  the  teacher  plans  the  work  for  any  period  of  time, 
he  must  take  account  not  alone  of  acquisition  of  new  power 
but  of  conservation  of  that  already  acquired.  He  must  ever 
seek  to  build  the  old  into  the  new,  and  to  utilize  it  in  the 
mastery  of  the  new.  This  constant  renewal  and  broadening 


256  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

of  material  through  its  expanding  place  in  the  whole  is  the 
best  kind  of  review. 

Yet  the  review  lesson  also  has  its  place,  because  of  its 
broader  range  and  opportunity  for  organization.  Its  mode 
is  that  of  recitation,  frequently  combined  with  application. 
Usually  it  differs  from  the  recitation  procedure  of  the  typical 
lesson  in  that  its  content  is  derived  from  a  much  larger  field 
and  longer  period  of  study,  although  conducted  similarly  to 
it.  It  is  largely  because  of  this  difference  of  scorje_that  it  has 
to  a  peculiar  degree  the  added  function  of  organizing  the 
lessons  previously  studied,  while  sharing  with  the  other  the 
purpose  of  insuring  permanency  of  retention. 

Requirements. — From  the  nature  of  a  review,  it  is  ob- 
vious that  only  the  essentials  of  its  content  can  receive  atten- 
tion. A  review  exercise  must  necessarily  pass  over  the  de- 
tails. This  does  not  mean  that  they  shall  be  taken  for 
granted,  but  rather  that  the  essentials  shall  be  so  dealt  with 
as  to  presuppose  and  demand  a  knowledge  of  detail.  This  is 
due  not  so  much  to  lack  of  time  as  to  the  importance  of  select- 
ing and  setting  forth  the  more  fundamental  principles  and 
significant  facts,  not  in  isolation  but  in  an  organic  unity. 
Too  often,  in  the  study  of  new  material,  the  necessary  atten- 
tion to  particular  facts  and  details  of  procedure  cause  the 
student  to  lose  his  perspective  of  the  relationship  and  signifi- 
cance in  what  he  is  studying.  The  review  lesson  or  exercise 
offers  the  opportunity  for  the  organization  of  this  otherwise 
unorganized  material. 

With  this  conception  of  the  organizing  function  of  the  re- 
view, it  is  evident  that  the  frequency  of  the  review  lesson  is 
to  be  determined  not  by  the  calendar  but  by  the  content. 
Naturally,  the  tune  to  review  is  upon  the  completion  of  a 
unit  of  thought,  for  then  only  can  one  realize  the  significance 
both  of  part  to  part  and  of  the  whole  to  other  lines  of  thought. 

Review  is  more  than  reciting.  Merely  recalling  what  has 
been  retained  or  revived  by  special  study  does  not  fulfil  this 
broader  function  of  review.  It  demands  the  active  co- 


LESSON   ORGANIZATION  257 

operation  of  the  teacher  in  the  pupil's  thinking,  leading  him 
by  question  and  suggestion,  even  by  supplementing  his 
knowledge,  to  discover  the  broader  meanings  hitherto  un- 
noticed. This  means,  then,  that  merely  giving  a  written 
test  upon  work  previously  studied,  however  valuable  in  it- 
self, must  not  be  called  review.  The  review  may  well  cul- 
minate in  a  test,  but  the  test  is  not  a  review. 

5.    SUMMARY 

The  lesson  plan  should  include  a  well-formulated  aim,  a 
carefully  selected  and  organized  content,  an  appropriate 
lesson  development  and  application,  introduced  by  a  recita- 
tion which  connects  the  past  study  with  the  new  lesson,  and 
a  definite  assignment.  Pivotal  questions  should  be  formulated 
for  the  introduction  of  topics  and  lines  of  thought.  Provision 
should  be  made  for  the  form  and  distribution  of  the  lesson 
activity  at  each  step,  in  so  far  as  possible  without  sacrificing 
freedom  of  adaptation  and  initiative. 

At  the  completion  of  units  of  thought  in  the  lesson,  the 
class  should  work  out  summaries,  thus  securing  organization 
of  thought  as  well  as  deepening  of  impression. 

The  review,  dealing  with  old  material,  should  serve  not 
alone  to  secure  permanence  of  acquisition  but  more  especially 
better  organization  of  content.  Its  frequency  should  be  de- 
termined rather  by  subject  matter  than  by  time  intervals. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  What  practical  difficulties  will  result  from  making  the  written 
lesson  plan  too  detailed?     From  making  it  too  general  (leaving  too 
much  to  memory  or  inspiration)  ? 

2.  Will  pupils  lose  confidence  in  a  teacher  when  they  see  that  he 
uses  a  written  lesson  plan  ? 

3.  Is  it  wise  for  the  teacher  to  be  seen  to  read  his  pivotal  questions 
from  his  written  lesson  plan?     Give  reasons. 

4.  Mention  the  advantages  of  keeping  a  permanent  file  of  all 
lesson  plans  used. 


258  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

5.  Prepare  several  lesson  plans  in  accordance  with  the  principles 
suggested. 

6.  Watch  some  good  teacher  and  see  if  you  can  make  out  his  les- 
son plan  from  his  teaching. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READINGS 

Dewey,  "How  We  Think,"  chap.  XV. 

Strayer,  "Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process,"  chap.  XVI. 
Parker, '"Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools,"  chap.  XXI. 
Colvin,  "An  Introduction  to  High  School  Teaching,"  chap.  XVI. 
Bowman,  "The  Lesson  Plan  for  Inexperienced  Teachers,"  in  Industrial 

Arts  Magazine,  September,  1916. 

Twiss,  "A  Textbook  in  the  Principles  of  Science  Teaching,"  chap.  V. 
Whipple,  "Guide  to  High  School  Observation." 


CHAPTER  XIV 

STANDARDS  AND  MEASUREMENTS  IN  INSTRUCTION 
i.    EFFICIENCY  IN  TEACHING 

The  Need  for  Measurements. — A  merchant  who  kept  no 
account  books,  who  never  prepared  a  balance  sheet  or  took 
an  inventory  would  in  our  present  economic  world  soon  ex- 
perience bankruptcy.  The  successful  business  man  of  to-day 
is  constantly  submitting  each  department  and  method  of  his 
business  to  careful  scrutiny,  applying  everywhere  tests  and 
measurements  to  assure  himself  that  his  entire  system  is 
actively  contributing  to  the  desired  results. 

Sooner  or  later  the  tree  is  to  be  known  by  its  fruits,  and 
the  teaching  profession  has  within  a  decade  awakened  to  the 
applicability  of  this  principle  in  the  educational  world. 
Hitherto,  too  much  has  been  taken  for  granted,  too  little 
has  been  scrutinized  for  results.  The  peculiar  professional 
character  of  educational  work  and  the  long  interval  of  time 
between  education-getting  and  education-using  has  shielded 
the  teacher  from  the  responsibility  for  the  products  of  his 
labors.  In  consequence,  he  has  assumed  that  the  absence  of 
direct  criticism  from  without  means  successful  procedure, 
and  he  has  satisfied  himself  with  that  procedure  accordingly. 
The  examination  system  has  been  utilized  as  a  test  of  the 
performance  of  individual  pupils,  but  with  rare  exceptions 
the  teacher  has  never  noticed  that  even  this  inadequate  exer- 
cise was  also  a  partial  measure  of  the  instruction.  Moreover, 
when  the  instructor  prepares  the  examination  questions  for 
his  class  and  is  the  sole  authority  in  the  grading  of  the  answer 
papers,  he  has  no  basis  for  the  evaluation  of  their  perform- 
ance as  compared  with  the  work  of  students  under  other 
instructors. 

259 


260  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

Unfortunately  this  complacency  is  ill-grounded.  Our 
methods  of  instruction  are  largely  the  result  of  imitation,  too 
often  we  have  lost  any  consciousness  of  aim  which  may  have 
functioned  originally,  and  mere  inertia  is  all  that  serves  to 
perpetuate  them.  The  layman  does  not  challenge  them  be- 
cause of  recognized  incompetency,  the  supervisor  often  lacks 
the  time  and  skill  to  criticise,  and  the  instructor  himself  is 
too  intimately  involved  in  the  procedure  to  pass  judgment 
upon  it.  The  need  is  for  standards  which  are  sufficiently 
objective  and  impersonal  for  the  instructor  to  employ  in 
measuring  his  own  work,  and  which  are  general  enough  to 
render  possible  a  comparison  of  the  work  of  many  individuals. 

Scientific  method  takes  nothing  for  granted.  No  more 
should  instruction,  especially  if  it  would  lay  claim  to  being  a 
science.  It  is  but  natural  that  the  teacher  should  assume  the 
success  of  his  efforts  when  their  failure  is  not  forced  upon  his 
attention.  Partly  for  fear  of  displaying  ignorance  or  dul- 
ness,  partly  for  fear  of  seeming  to  imply  poor  teaching,  partly 
from  a  disposition  to  follow  the  line  of  least  resistance,  pupils 
do  not  tell  the  teacher  that  his  efforts  to  teach  them  have 
not  succeeded,  but  instead  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  students 
to  appear  to  have  succeeded  and  for  the  teacher  to  credit 
such  appearance  unquestioningly.  Day  by  day,  the  pupils 
turn  in  reasonably  correct  answers  to  problems,  and  the  teach- 
ers do  not  challenge  the  thinking  whereby  the  answers  were 
obtained.  Thus,  pupils  come  to  regard  the  situation  as 
normal,  and  the  instructor  becomes  increasingly  credulous 
and  uncritical.  What  is  needed  is  some  kind  of  indicator 
which  will  serve  to  report  to  the  teacher  that  his  efforts  are 
not  meeting  with  the  success  desired,  and  to  develop  in  the 
student  the  habit  of  insisting  upon  the  mastery  of  work  un- 
dertaken. 

Wise  business  management  requires  every  department  of 
the  business  to  show  that  it  is  making  each  dollar  and  each 
hour  invested  bring  in  the  maximum  return.  Considering 
the  enormous  outlay  in  money  and  labor  expended  in  the 


STANDARDS  AND  MEASUREMENTS  IN  INSTRUCTION      261 

work  of  teaching,  it  is  highly  important  that  there  too  the 
highest  possible  efficiency  be  attained,  and  the  element  of 
waste  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  The  teacher  who  accepts 
the  commission  of  converting  these  resources  into  educational 
products  thereby  implicitly  undertakes  to  employ  only  the 
most  effectual  methods,  and  must  accordingly  be  on  the 
watch  for  any  device  for  the  recognition  and  employment  of 
superior  and  economical  modes  of  procedure. 

Advantages  to  be  Gained  by  Measurement. — Because  of 
the  absence  of  an  external  challenge  upon  his  work,  because 
of  the  tendency  to  take  success  for  granted,  and  because  of 
the  obligation  to  secure  maximal  result  from  the  resources 
provided,  the  educator  is  in  need  of  suitable  standards  for 
checking  up  and  evaluating  his  work  through  its  results. 
These  requirements,  which  apply  to  the  entire  educative 
activity,  whether  administrative  or  instructional,  suggest 
several  ways  in  which  the  special  field  of  instruction  would 
derive  benefit  from  a  suitable  system  of  standardization  and 
measurement  of  teaching  products. 

In  the  first  place,  an  adequate  evaluation  of  personal  ac- 
complishment would  be  facilitated.  For  purposes  of  the 
grading  and  promotion  of  individual  students,  a  standard 
would  be  provided  whereby  to  adequately  rate  his  attain- 
ments. Under  the  prevailing  system  the  instructor  has  no 
accurate  method  of  evaluation.  Examinations  are  at  best 
only  fragmentary;  class  grades  do  not  represent  ultimate 
achievements  of  fitness  for  promotion.  Too  often  the  things 
which  the  instruction  is  designed  to  secure  are  not  made  the 
basis  for  ranking  of  the  pupil's  achievement.  Moreover,  it  is 
not  enough  to  know  where  the  student  stands  at  a  given  point 
of  time.  Quite  as  important  is  it  to  know  just  what  progress 
he  has  made  in  a  given  period  of  time.  Thus,  by  measuring 
his  achievement  at  regular  intervals,  it  is  possible  to  deter- 
mine what  his  progress  has  been,  and  whether  he  is  gaining 
ground  as  rapidly  as  is  expected  or  might  be  desired.  Nor  is 
the  application  of  standardization  limited  to  individual  stu- 


262  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

dents.  Immense  value  comes  from  a  comparison  of  work, 
between  classes  and  between  institutions.  Both  teacher  and 
supervisor  should  be  able  to  determine  whether  the  work  of 
a  class  measures  up  to  a  standard  which  might  reasonably  be 
expected  of  it,  and  such  standard  is  naturally  determined  by 
a  comparison  of  the  work  of  many  classes  and  institutions  and 
instructors.  Thus  the  value  of  a  standard  available  for  the 
evaluation  of  achievement  would  obviously  be  great. 

A  second  value,  and  one  which  concerns  us  peculiarly  in 
the  present  study,  lies  in  the  opportunity  afforded  for  the 
reliable  evaluation  of  various  teaching  methods.  Day  after 
day,  year  after  year,  we  follow  a  settled  plan  of  instruction, 
confident  that  it  is  effectual,  but  without  justification  for  our 
confidence.  Or,  if  two  alternative  methods  occur  to  us,  we 
are  prone  to  select  the  one  which  looks  the  better,  but  without 
positive  knowledge  of  its  superiority.  In  either  case,  the  only 
adequate  procedure  is  to  test  for  products,  and  to  let  the  result 
of  our  testing  determine  our  choice  of  further  procedure. 
The  old  method  of  memorizing  a  poem  line  by  line  was  gen- 
erally accepted  as  the  best  until  an  experimental  test  estab- 
lished the  superiority  of  learning  by  much  larger  units.  For 
the  determination  of  the  value  of  methods  and  the  selection 
of  the  most  effectual  there  are  needed  established  standards 
of  comparison  and  methods  of  measurement  if  conjecture 
and  custom  are  to  give  way  to  certainty  and  progress. 

Finally,  scientifically  applied  methods  of  testing  are  of 
inestimable  value  in  discovering  the  peculiar  needs  and 
talents  of  individual  students.  Class  instruction  tends  to 
produce  a  collective  attitude  on  the  teacher's  part  in  his 
treatment  of  the  class.  While  it  is  wise  and  necessary  to 
employ  much  the  same  method  of  instruction  for  all  mem- 
bers of  the  group,  it  is  equally  important  that  the  individual 
needs  of  the  students  be  recognized  and  met  in  the  employ- 
ment of  the  method,  and  the  knowledge  of  such  individual 
needs  can  best  be  obtained  by  well-planned,  scientifically 
devised  tests  and  measurements. 


STANDARDS   AND   MEASUREMENTS   IN   INSTRUCTION      263 

The  need  and  value  of  such  standardization  is  to-day  gain- 
ing general  recognition  among  educators,  but  as  yet  compara- 
tively little  has  been  accomplished  in  the  supplying  of  that 
need.  The  problem  is  a  most  difficult  one,  and  what  little 
has  been  done  toward  the  solution  has  been  restricted  largely 
to  elementary  education.  This  does  not  mean,  however,  that 
the  secondary  school  teacher  need  not  concern  himself  in  the 
matter  until  scientists  have  completed  the  task  of  standardiza- 
tion. Rather  he  must  be  familiar  with  the  essentials  and  the 
application  of  standards  so  that  when  they  are  proposed  as 
they  are  bound  to  be  soon,  he  will  be  able  to  employ  them 
discriminatingly  and  effectually.  At  the  same  time,  there  is 
much  that  he  can  do  by  way  of  improving  what  tests  he  is 
already  employing,  and  rendering  them  more  significant,  and 
interpreting  better  their  results.  Finally,  he  may  actively 
participate  in  the  work  of  formulating  standards,  even  in  a 
humble  way,  by  studying  carefully  the  aim  and  essentials  of 
educational  measurements,  and  trying  out  such  simple  tests 
as  seem  to  him  helpful  and  significant. 


2.    ESSENTIALS  OF  STANDARDIZATION 

In  the  commercial  world,  standardization  has  been  and 
is  being  carried  into  all  the  fields  of  intercourse.  There  are 
standards  of  length,  of  weight,  of  value;  standard  sizes  of 
builders'  materials,  standard  weight  of  the  bushel,  standard 
strength  of  chemical  solutions.  Efficiency  in  education,  as  in 
commerce,  demands  the  establishment  of  educational  stand- 
ards, as  the  preceding  section  has  already  shown  us. 

Essentials  in  Measurement. — What  is  a  standard?  In 
view  of  its  obvious  purpose,  the  facilitation  of  comparison  be- 
tween individuals  and  groups  with  regard  to  some  specified 
feature,  we  find  five  essentials  which  any  standard,  in  edu- 
cation as  well  as  elsewhere,  must  possess.  These  we  shall 
call  objectivity,  definiteness,  absoluteness,  inclusiveness,  and 


264  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

practicability.1  A  brief  discussion  of  each  seems  to  be  called 
for. 

By  the  term  "objectivity"  of  a  standard  is  meant  its  free- 
dom from  personal  bias  on  the  part  of  the  one  employing 
it.  An  objective  standard  is  one  which  conveys  the  same 
meaning  to  all  competent  observers.  The  hour,  the  meter, 
and  the  degree  are  thus  objective  standards.  On  the  other 
hand,  such  assertions  as  "this  problem  is  as  easily  solved  by 
algebra  as  by  arithmetic"  involve  a  purely  subjective  stand- 
ard, since  what  is  easier  for  one  pupil  is  often  more  difficult 
for  another. 

The  term  "definiteness"  needs  but  little  explanation.  A 
standard,  in  order  to  serve  as  a  basis  for  measurement  and 
comparison,  must  have  an  exact  meaning.  When  there  is 
uncertainty  as  to  its  interpretation,  when  the  observer  can 
read  into  it  anything  except  a  single  meaning,  it  loses  its 
value  as  a  standard.  The  tables  of  measurement  and  the 
established  standards  of  the  commercial  world  mean,  every- 
where and  always,  an  exact  and  permanent  value.  The  pro- 
verbial recipe  which  calls  for  "a  pan  of  flour,  a  small  cupful 
of  sugar,  and  a  little  salt,"  involves,  for  the  uninitiated  at 
least,  anything  but  a  definite  standard  of  measurement.  "A 
reading  knowledge  of  French "  as  a  requirement  for  advanced 
study  is  well  known  to  admit  of  widely  varying  interpreta- 
tions because  of  its  indefiniteness. 

Absoluteness,  the  third  essential  of  a  good  standard,  sug- 
gests the  idea  of  independence  and  fixity.  An  absolute 
standard  is  one  whose  value  is  not  dependent  upon  some 
changeable  factor,  but  is  always  the  same  because  it  is  free 
from  variable  conditions.  The  absoluteness  of  the  meter  as 
a  standard  is  insured  by  making  it  the  length  of  a  certain 
metal  bar  in  Paris,  at  a  specified  temperature.  The  ability 
to  spell  all  the  words  in  "Thanatopsis"  would  constitute  an 
absolute  standard,  though  doubtless  one  of  little  educational 
value.  On  the  other  hand,  the  ability  to  spell  the  best  in  a 

1  Cf.  Thorndike,  "Mental  and  Social  Measurements,"  pp.  11-18. 


STANDARDS  AND  MEASUREMENTS  IN  INSTRUCTION      26$ 

class  of  sixth  grade  children  would  not  serve  for  a  standard 
of  spelling  ability,  for  in  another  sixth  grade  the  superiority 
in  spelling  might  mean  a  higher  or  a  lower  degree  of  efficiency. 

The  fourth  essential  is  inclusiveness,  both  of  range  and  of 
gradations.  In  careful  measurement,  we  never  lay  down  our 
walking-stick  and  say,  "the  room  is  seven  tunes  as  long  as 
the  stick,"  or  "the  line  is  four-fifths  of  the  length  of  the 
stick."  It  is  an  established  psychological  principle  that  the 
most  accurate  judgment  is  of  equality,  and  that  the  estimation 
of  considerable  differences  and  of  relative  amounts  is  exceed- 
ingly inaccurate.  So,  in  measuring,  we  choose  a  measure  at 
least  as  long  as  the  line  to  be  measured,  and  seek  to  find  some 
known  length  on  the  measure  just  equal  to  the  length  of  the 
line  measured.  In  like  manner,  if  we  wish  to  measure  the 
spelling  efficiency  of  a  number  of  children,  we  require  a  stand- 
ard scale  of  spelling  performances  extending  at  least  to  the 
quality  of  the  best  performance  in  the  group,  and  including 
already  evaluated  performances  approximately  corresponding 
in  quality  to  the  performances  of  the  various  children. 

The  fifth  requirement,  practicability,  involves  the  work- 
ableness of  the  proposed  standard  in  the  measurement  of  the 
various  things  for  which  it  is  intended.  Miles  or  kilometres 
are  far  more  practicable  than  inches  and  centimetres  as  stand- 
ards for  geographical  distances.  Ability  to  image  the  scenes 
described  would  not  serve  as  a  standard  in  measuring  historical 
study,  since  it  would  be  impossible  to  know  or  to  calculate 
the  results  secured. 

Measurableness. — But  the  possession  of  a  suitable  stand- 
ard is  not  all  of  measurement.  There  are  certain  principles 
which  govern  in  the  method  and  the  range  of  its  application. 
In  educational  work  especially,  the  complexity  of  both  ma- 
terial and  standard  and  the  comparative  newness  of  the  field 
demand  no  small  degree  of  caution  in  the  application  of  mea- 
surements, and  efforts  to  measure  that  which  in  the  present 
development  of  our  method  is  incapable  of  measurement  are 
common  but  unfortunate. 


266  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

What  can  be  measured?  The  answer  lies  in  the  nature 
of  measurement.  When  we  wish  to  know  the  length  of  a 
garden,  we  provide  ourselves  with  a  standardized  length  in 
the  form  of  a  tape  measure,  and  by  comparison  determine  the 
standardized  length  on  the  tape  measure  which  (as  nearly  as 
possible)  matches  the  length  of  the  garden.  The  result  con- 
stitutes the  dimension  of  the  garden.  The  same  principles 
and  method  hold  in  educational  as  in  linear  measurements. 
In  the  first  place,  our  measurement  of  the  garden  demands  a 
standard  which  can  be  used  for  the  entire  distance  measured. 
If  the  garden  is  crossed  by  a  high  wall  so  that  the  tape 
measure  cannot  be  accurately  used,  our  efforts  are  thwarted. 
The  further  requirement,  closely  related  to  that  just  men- 
tioned, is  that  the  terminal  points  of  the  measurement  be 
accessible.  If  one  end  of  the  garden  is  completely  inacces- 
sible, measurement  would  be  impossible. 

Educational  measurements  demand  the  same  conditions, 
viz.,  an  applicable  standard  and  accessible  termini  of  measure- 
ment, and  only  those  things  can  be  measured  wherein  these 
requirements  are  met.  As  yet,  applicable  standards  for  edu- 
cational measurements  are  very  few,  and  most  of  these  are 
applicable  to  elementary  education  only.  Extreme  difficulty 
is  experienced  in  the  formulation  of  standards  which  meet 
the  five  requirements  mentioned  at  the  beginning  of  the  pres- 
ent section.  In  the  evaluation  of  students'  achievements,  it 
is  hard  to  find  standards  such  that  all  observers  employing 
them  will  give  the  same  judgments.  Definite  standards  such 
that  the  meaning  and  values  are  unmistakable  require  great 
care  in  the  formulating.  Standards  whose  values  are  so  well 
established  as  to  be  absolute  and  uniform  for  all  times  and 
conditions,  materials  and  judges,  are  not  readily  devised. 
The  securing,  selecting,  and  ranking  of  a  series  of  graded  speci- 
mens of  educational  efficiency  involves  extended  search  and 
careful  discriminating  judgment.  Much  experimental  in- 
vestigation is  required  in  the  discovery  of  standards  which 
can  be  readily  and  generally  applied. 


STANDARDS   AND   MEASUREMENTS   IN   INSTRUCTION      267 

To  say  that  the  termini  of  measurement  must  be  acces- 
sible means  that  we  must  be  able  to  determine  the  location 
both  of  the  performance  as  given  for  measurement  and  of  the 
zero  degree  of  such  performance.  We  must  really  know  just 
what  the  individual  or  group  is  presenting  us;  the  thing  we 
take  to  be  the  index  of  capacity  must  be  truly  indicative  of 
that  capacity.  Measuring  the  capacity  of  the  trained  mathe- 
matician by  means  of  a  sixth  grade  examination  paper  in 
arithmetic  would  be  futile,  since  the  performance  would  not 
represent  that  capacity.  His  capacity  can  be  measured  only 
when  we  can  employ  a  test  the  response  to  which  represents 
the  exercise  of  that  capacity  to  its  utmost.  Moreover,  the 
true  evaluation  of  his  achievement  is  possible  only  when  we 
can  say  how  much  power  it  represents :  how  much  better  it  is 
than  no  power  at  all,  or  the  zero  ability.  When  a  stone  is 
said  to  weigh  five  pounds,  it  means  that  it  weighs  five  pounds 
more  than  nothing.  The  determination  of  the  zero  point 
in  educational  capacities  is  one  of  the  first  steps  in  standard- 
ization, and  demands  extensive  experiment  and  calculation. 
At  best,  it  is  ultimately  a  matter  of  the  judgment  of  many 
competent  observers  in  which  there  is  a  reasonable  degree  of 
agreement. 

Applications  of  Measurement. — What  specific  elements  in 
secondary  instruction  can  be  measured?  In  terms  of  the 
aims  of  instruction,  as  mentioned  in  Chapter  III,1  there  are 
five  results  which  good  instruction  will  effect  and  which  the 
successful  pupil  will  possess:  knowledge,  thought  power, 
appreciation,  efficiency  in  expression  and  application,  and 
permanency.  To  which  of  these  are  the  methods  of  measure- 
ment applicable?  That  suitable  measurements  for  even  a 
considerable  number  of  them  have  not  yet  been  devised  we 
have  already  seen. 

Knowledge  seems  evidently  the  easiest  for  which  to  test. 
One  has  but  little  more  to  do  than  to  list  the  facts  the  pupil 
might  be  expected  to  know,  and  ask  memory  questions  enough 

1  Cf.  p.  30. 


268  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

to  draw  out  the  desired  information  provided  neither  exam- 
iner nor  pupil  perish  from  exhaustion  during  the  process. 
Indeed,  it  is  the  enormity  of  the  amount  of  material  rather 
than  its  inaccessibility  that  renders  an  adequate  testing  of 
knowledge  impossible,  and  herein  lies  much  of  the  basis  for 
the  criticism  that  an  examination  consisting  largely  of  memory 
questions  is  largely  a  test  of  endurance  and  a  matter  of  chance. 
As  we  come  more  and  more  to  realize  that  the  possession  of 
information  is  not  the  final  educational  aim,  the  importance 
placed  upon  the  examination  primarily  for  knowledge  dimin- 
ishes. 

The  testing  for  thought  power  presents  a  more  difficult 
problem.  Some  work  has  been  done  along  the  line  of  mathe- 
matical reasoning  and  the  interpretation  of  reading  content, 
and  less  in  the  field  of  judgment.  For  the  power  of  imagina- 
tion, no  test  has  yet  been  devised.  Naturally  there  is  en- 
countered difficulty  in  the  formulation  and  application  of  an 
adequate  standard,  for  it  is  not  easy  to  say  that  two  different 
thought  problems  are  equally  difficult  for  a  student,  or  that 
the  same  problem  represents  the  same  capacity  on  the  part  of 
two  different  students.  With  any  but  the  simpler  forms  of 
mathematical  reasoning  and  possibly  of  judgment,  the  thought 
process  is  highly  complex  and  individual,  and  depends  largely 
upon  the  pupil's  previous  experience.  In  the  case  of  im- 
agination, the  difficulty  of  measurement  is  much  increased 
by  the  discrepancy  between  the  imagery  and  its  expres- 
sion. 

Appreciation  is  clearly  the  most  difficult  of  all  to  measure. 
Like  imagery,  but  to  a  much  greater  degree,  it  is  so  far  re- 
moved from  its  expression  as  to  be  seemingly  inaccessible. 
It  is  for  this  reason  that  many  excellent  teachers  oppose  the 
giving  of  examinations  in  literature,  feeling  that  the  examina- 
tion would  tend  to  overemphasize  the  knowledge  element  in 
the  study,  and  would  afford  no  measure  of  the  vital  element, 
the  appreciation.  It  is  of  course  well  for  the  student  to  com- 
pare aesthetic  situations  as  to  their  appeal  to  the  observer, 


STANDARDS  AND   MEASUREMENTS  IN  INSTRUCTION      269 

but  anything  like  a  scientific  measurement  of  that  appeal  and 
its  response  is  as  yet  far  from  realized.1 

Efficiency,  as  the  student's  ability  to  express  and  apply 
his  experience,  is  necessarily  a  factor  in  all  forms  of  testing. 
His  knowledge,  his  thought,  and  his  feeling  can  be  measured 
only  in  so  far  as  they  can  find  expression  and  application. 
At  the  same  time,  it  is  often  possible  to  grade  students'  per- 
formances as  to  efficiency  in  expression  and  application  as 
distinct  from  the  content  expressed  or  applied.  In  com- 
position work,  the  form  of  expression,  including  the  selection 
of  words  and  style  of  writing  or  of  speech,  may  be  evaluated. 
In  practically  all  forms  of  scholastic  work,  the  element  of 
application  can  be  investigated.  In  this  latter  case,  the  most 
work  has  been  devoted  to  the  standardization  of  skill  in  the 
application  of  rules  and  processes,  such  as  the  mathematical 
operations,  the  observance  of  grammatical  and  rhetorical 
principles,  and  the  functioning  of  training  in  penmanship  and 
reading.  Speed  and  accuracy  of  performance  play  a  large 
part  in  the  measurement  of  application.  However,  the  ex- 
pression and  application  are  but  the  form  which  the  content 
assumes,  and  their  measurement  apart  from  that  of  their 
content,  the  knowledge,  thought,  and  feeling,  is  difficult,  if 
not  impossible. 

Of  measurement  for  permanency,  the  last  statement  holds 
with  equal  validity.  To  measure  permanency  is  but  to  mea- 
sure the  degree  to  which  experience  persists  when  once  acquired. 
It  is  virtually  a  memory  test,  and  involves  implicitly  an  ex- 
amination for  all  the  other  four  instruction  aims.  While 
many  investigations  to  determine  the  best  methods  of  learn- 
ing have  been  made,  no  standardization  for  it  has  yet  been 
effected  in  the  same  way  in  which  thought  power  and  skill 
have  been  standardized.  Doubtless  as  its  importance  is 
better  realized  it  will  receive  more  attention,  for  there  appears 


1  Cf.  "Tests  of  ..Esthetic  Appreciation,"  by  Thorndike,  in  the  Journal 
of  Educational  Psychology,  November,  1916. 


270  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

to  be  no  inherent  difficulty  to  prevent  its  measurement  and 
standardization. 

What  has  been  said  suggests  a  limitation  to  which  the  en- 
tire measurement  problem  is  subject.  The  various  activities 
are  so  intimately  interwoven  that  a  test  for  any  one  is  at  the 
same  time  a  partial  test  for  most  or  all  of  the  others.  The 
complete  isolation  of  any  one  of  them  is  impossible,  so  that  the 
results  obtained  indicate  more  than  the  measure  of  some  single 
element.  For  educational  purposes,  however,  this  is  not  a 
fatal  difficulty,  for  the  desired  products  of  instruction  are 
always  compounds  of  these  elements,  and  it  is  educational 
products  alone  which  it  is  worth  while  to  measure,  whether 
in  determining  the  educational  progress  of  the  child  and  his 
fitness  for  promotion,  in  discovering  the  most  effectual 
methods  of  instruction,  or  as  a  basis  for  the  comparison  of  in- 
dividuals or  groups.  The  importance  of  the  consideration  of 
the  elements  separately  lies  in  the  necessity  for  their  recog- 
nition and  consideration  in  the  measuring. 

That  a  real  prejudice  exists  against  the  measurement  and 
standardization  of  educational  products  is  largely  due  to  the 
complexity  just  mentioned,  and  the  fear  that  measurements 
cannot  be  applied  to  them  without  failing  to  measure  vital, 
perhaps  the  most  vital,  elements  in  them.  It  is  felt  by  some 
that  only  certain  minor  phases  of  instruction  are  amenable 
to  quantitative  treatment,  and  that  the  attempts  made  tend 
to  an  overemphasis  of  these  minor  phases  in  educational 
evaluations.  That  such  a  danger  exists  is  doubtless  true. 
However,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  work  of  standardiza- 
tion is  yet  in  its  infancy,  but  is  imperatively  needed  for  the 
attainment  of  maximal  efficiency  in  teaching.  The  results  al- 
ready attained  are  proving  of  inestimable  value,  and  with  a 
careful  prosecution  of  the  investigations  and  a  proper  evalu- 
ation of  the  results  actually  achieved,  the  teaching  efficiency 
in  our  schools,  secondary  as  well  as  elementary,  will  ex- 
perience a  real  and  inestimable  advance. 


STANDARDS  AND  MEASUREMENTS  IN  INSTRUCTION    271 

3.    TYPICAL  STANDARDS  AND  FORMS  OF  MEASUREMENT 

The  Two  Kinds  of  Measurement. — The  surveyor  seeking 
to  determine  the  elevation  of  a  mountain  must  first  know  the 
level  of  the  sea,  which  is  to  serve  him  as  the  zero  elevation. 
Not  that  he  must  actually  drill  a  hole  into  the  earth  until 
sea  level  is  reached.  But  he  must  know  how  far  down  it 
lies;  it  must  be  ideally  accessible,  in  order  that  the  elevation 
of  the  peak  may  be  measured  from  it.  In  the  same  way,  the 
educational  investigator,  seeking  to  evaluate  the  student's 
proficiency,  must  know  the  zero  point  of  that  proficiency. 
He  must  either  find  or  manufacture  a  specimen  of  work  which 
is  to  represent  just  no  proficiency  at  all  of  the  type  to  be 
investigated. 

Let  us,  however,  conceive  of  a  surveyor  who  for  some  reason 
does  not  know  and  cannot  find  the  sea  level.  Evidently  he 
cannot  determine  how  many  feet  high  the  mountain  peak  is, 
but  there  remains  something  which  he  can  do  which  may 
prove  of  real  value.  He  can  form  a  comparison  of  the  given 
peak  with  neighboring  peaks.  So  the  educator  who  cannot 
determine  numerically  just  how  much  a  student's  perform- 
ance is  better  than  zero  may  still  give  it  a  rating  in  terms  of 
the  work  of  other  students  of  the  same  age  or  class. 

Thus  we  have  two  types  or  grades  of  measurement.  In 
the  one,  the  comparison  is  made  with  a  known  zero  point, 
above  which  the  performances  of  students  are  rated  in  terms 
of  absolute  value.  This,  of  course,  is  the  ideal  measurement. 
In  the  second  type,  the  comparison  is  made  solely  with  the 
achievements  of  other  students,  and  all  that  can  be  deter- 
mined is  relative  merit.  Obviously,  this  is  far  inferior  to  the 
former  type  as  regards  scientific  exactness,  mainly  because  of 
the  variability  of  the  assumed  standard,  the  work  of  other 
students.  It  is,  however,  far  from  valueless,  and  for  some 
purposes  its  results  may  serve  quite  as  well  as  those  of  the 
absolute  standard,  in  the  former  type.  The  present  section 
aims  to  give  the  reader  a  conception  of  the  kind  of  work  al- 


272  PRINCIPLES   OP   TEACHING 

ready  done  in  the  formulation  of  standards  and  systems  of 
measurements  of  these  two  types.  Although  our  interest  is 
primarily  in  secondary  education,  the  extremely  limited  de- 
gree of  work  yet  done  in  that  field  and  the  overlapping  be- 
tween elementary  and  secondary  education,  especially  in  the 
junior  high  school,  justify  a  brief  treatment  of  some  standardi- 
zation already  attempted  in  the  elementary  field. 

Measurement  in  Various  Studies. — The  work  done  in  the 
study  of  school  children's  handwriting  will  possibly  be  the 
simplest  to  explain  and  the  most  convenient  starting-point 
for  our  treatment  of  the  subject.  As  a  standard  for  the  grad- 
ing of  the  handwriting  of  children  of  the  four  upper  grammar 
grades  (fifth  to  eighth),  Professor  Thorndike  has  prepared  a 
scale  (commonly  called  the  Thorndike  Scale),  consisting  of  a 
series  of  specimens  of  handwriting  representing  various  de- 
grees of  excellence,  and  each  quality  being  numbered  accord- 
ing to  its  position  in  the  series  or  scale.  The  number  of  each 
quality  in  the  scale  is  thus  an  index  of  its  relative  merit. 
Professor  Thorndike's  own  explanation  may  profitably  be 
quoted.  "The  use  of  7,  8,  9,  10,  n,  12,  13,  14,  15,  16,  and 
17  for  these  qualities  of  handwriting  means  first  of  all,  that 
14  is  as  much  better  than  13,  as  13  is  than  12;  that  13  is  as 
much  better  than  12,  as  12  is  than  n,  and  so  on.  In  the 
second  place  it  means  that  quality  14  is  two  times  as  far 
above  o  merit  in  handwriting  as  quality  7  is;  that  quality  16 
is  twice  as  far  above  o  merit  in  handwriting  as  quality  8  is, 
and  so  on.  Zero  merit  is  defined  roughly  as  ...  a  hand- 
writing, recognizable  as  such,  but  of  absolutely  no  merit  as 
handwriting.  The  use  of  several  samples  under  one  quality 
means  that  these  samples  are  of  equal  merit.  The  scale  in- 
cludes samples  of  as  many  different  styles  as  could  be  ob- 
tained, so  that  in  using  the  scale  the  merit  of  any  sample  of 
any  style  of  writing  can  be  quickly  ascertained  by  comparison 
with  the  scale.  The  scale  extends  in  actual  samples  by  chil- 
dren from  nearly  the  worst  writing  of  fourth  grade  children 
(quality  5)  to  nearly  the  best  writing  of  eighth  grade  children 


STANDARDS  AND  MEASUREMENTS  IN  INSTRUCTION      273 

(quality  17).  Quality  7  is  nearly  the  worst  writing  of  fifth 
grade  children. 

"The  scale  includes  a  sample  of  a  copy  book  model  which 
is  rated  by  competent  judges  as  of  approximately  quality  18, 
two  samples  of  fourth  grade  writing  which  are  judged  to  be 
approximately  of  qualities  6  and  5,  and  a  very  bad  writing, 
artificially  produced,  which  is  rated  by  competent  judges  as 
of  approximately  quality  4.  The  scale  thus  extends  from  a 
quality  better  than  which  no  pupil  is  expected  to  produce, 
down  to  a  quality  so  bad  as  to  be  intolerable,  and  probably 
almost  never  found  in  school  practice  in  the  grammar  grades." 

"Any  specimen  of  handwriting  is  measured  by  this  scale 
by  putting  it  alongside  the  scale,  as  it  were,  and  seeing  to 
what  point  on  the  scale  it  is  nearest."  l  The  derivation  of 
the  scale  is  a  long  and  complicated  process,  and  does  not  con- 
cern us  in  our  present  discussion.  For  an  explanation  of  the 
process,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Professor  Thorndike's  ac- 
count of  it  in  the  publication  from  which  we  have  quoted. 

The  Hillegas  Scale  for  the  measurement  of  quality  in  Eng- 
lish composition2  is  constructed  on  the  same  principle  as  the 
foregoing.  Here  again  a  series  of  samples  of  compositions 
is  made  the  basis  for  evaluation,  by  comparison  with  which 
the  composition  to  be  measured  is  ranked.  The  following 
specimens  taken  from  the  Hillegas  Scale  will  afford  some  idea 
of  its  character.  The  first  sample  is  a  purely  artificial  one, 
supplied  for  the  purpose  of  providing  a  zero  quality.  The 
other  samples  here  given  are  the  work  of  high  school  students, 
of  second,  first,  and  third  year  classification,  respectively. 

Sample  580.     Value  o. 

Dear  Sir:  I  write  to  say  that  it  aint  a  square  deal  Schools  is  I  say 
they  is  I  went  to  school,  red  and  gree  green  and  brown  aint  it  hito  bit 
I  say  he  don't  know  his  business  not  today  nor  yesterday  and  you 
know  it  and  I  want  Jennie  to  get  me  out. 

1  Thorndike,  "Handwriting,"  in  Teachers  College  fecord,  March,  1910. 

2  Hillegas,  "English  Composition,"  in  Teachers  College  Record,  Septem- 
ber, 1912. 


274  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

Sample  94.    Value  369. 

When  Sulla  came  back  from  his  conquest  Marius  had  put  himself 
consul  so  sulla  with  the  army  he  had  with  him  in  his  conquest  siezed 
the  government  from  Marius  and  put  himself  in  consul  and  had  a  list 
of  his  enemys  printy  and  the  men  whoes  names  were  on  this  list  we 
beheaded. 

Sample  196.    Value  675. 

Ichabod  Crane  was  a  schoolmaster  in  a  place  called  Sleepy  Hollow. 
He  was  tall  and  slim  with  broad  shoulders,  long  arms  that  dangled 
far  below  his  coat  sleeves.  His  feet  looked  as  if  they  might  have 
easily  been  used  for  shovels.  His  nose  was  long  and  his  entire  frame 
was  most  loosely  hung  to-gether. 

Sample  221.    Value  772. 

GOING  DOWN  WITH  VICTORY 

As  we  road  down  Lombard  Street,  we  saw  flags  waving  from 
nearly  every  window.  I  surely  felt  proud  that  day  to  be  the  driver  of 
the  gaily  decorated  coach.  Again  and  again  we  were  cheered  as  we 
drove  slowly  to  the  postmasters,  to  await  the  coming  of  his  majestie's 
mail.  There  wasn't  one  of  the  gaily  bedecked  coaches  that  could  have 
compared  with  ours,  in  my  estimation.  So  with  waving  flags  and 
fluttering  hearts  we  waited  for  the  coming  of  the  mail  and  the  expected 
tidings  of  victory. 

When  at  last  it  did  arrive  the  postmaster  began  to  quickly  sort 
the  bundles,  we  waited  anxiously.  Immediately  upon  receiving  our 
bundles,  I  lashed  the  horses  and  they  responded  with  a  jump.  Out 
in  the  country  we  drove  at  reckless  speed — everywhere  spreading  like 
wildfire  the  news,  "Victory!"  The  exileration  that  we  all  felt  was 
shared  with  the  horses.  Up  and  down  grade  and  over  bridges,  we 
drove  at  breakneck  speed  and  spreading  the  news  at  every  hamlet 
with  that  one  cry  "Victory!"  When  at  last  we  were  back  home 
again,  it  was  with  the  hope  that  we  should  have  another  ride  some 
day  with  "Victory." 

In  the  interpretation  of  the  values  assigned,  the  same  prin- 
ciple holds  as  in  the  handwriting  scale.  For  example,  sample 
221  is  rated  as  a  little  more  than  twice  as  good  as  sample  94, 
ami  about  seven-sixths  as  good  as  sample  196.  "Merit  in 


STANDARDS  AND   MEASUREMENTS   IN   INSTRUCTION      27$ 

English  writing  is  complex.  Judges  are  influenced  both  by 
form  and  by  content.  Such  factors  of  form  as  spelling , 
punctuation,  capitalization,  and  the  like  are  subject  to  definite 
rules.  Form  is,  therefore,  more  easily  measured  than  con- 
tent. When  an  individual  is  in  doubt  concerning  the  relative 
merits  of  two  English  compositions,  the  tendency  is  to  fix 
upon  some  one  or  more  of  the  obvious  form  elements,  and  for 
the  time  being  to  give  them  undue  importance  in  fixing  the 
relation  of  the  samples. 

"No  attempt  has  been  made  in  this  study  to  define  merit. 
The  term  as  here  used  means  just  that  quality  which  com- 
petent persons  commonly  consider  as  merit,  and  the  scale 
measures  just  this  quality.  .  . 

"The  value  of  any  English  composition  may  be  obtained 
by  placing  it  beside  the  samples  constituting  the  scale  and 
determining  to  which  it  most  nearly  corresponds."  1  Thus 
applying  Doctor  Hillegas's  explanation  to  the  samples  given 
above,  if  the  reader  thinks  the  sample  to  be  measured  "is 
better  than  sample  196  but  not  as  good  as  sample  221,  he 
may  place  the  value  between  675  and  772.  By  this  method 
the  value  of  any  sample  may  be  expressed  as  accurately  as 
the  individual  cares  to  make  it."  Unfortunately  English 
composition  is  necessarily  a  very  complex  thing  for  evalua- 
tion; much  more  so  than  handwriting  or  drawing.  The  Hil- 
legas  Scale  has  been  criticised  on  two  grounds:  lack  of  inclu- 
siveness  and  lack  of  definitenees.  Experience  has  shown  that 
it  is  not  sufficiently  inclusive  in  that  it  lacks  small  enough 
subdivisions;  that  the  intervals  between  the  specimens  con- 
stituting the  scale  are  too  wide  to  render  possible  the  rating 
of  the  various  merits  of  compositions  that  occur  in  practice. 
To  meet  this  defect  there  has  been  issued  the  Thorndike  Ex- 
tension of  the  scale,  wherein  are  included  a  larger  number  of 
specimens  of  different  merit,  and  accordingly  separated  by 
smaller  intervals.  This  Extension  also  seeks  to  remedy  the 

1  Hillegas,  "English  Composition,"  in  Teachtrs  College  Retard,  Septem- 
ber, 1912. 


276  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

other  defect  mentioned,  the  lack  of  definiteness,  by  placing 
in  the  scale  more  than  one  specimen  for  each  quality,  in  order 
that  the  user  of  the  scale  may  find  in  it  a  specimen  similar 
in  type  as  well  as  merit  to  the  composition  he  would  score. 

Another  effort  to  meet  the  demand  for  definiteness  has 
been  made  in  what  is  known  as  the  Harvard-Newton  Scale,1 
prepared  by  the  teachers  of  Newton,  Massachusetts,  working 
co-operatively  with  F.  W.  Ballou,  of  Harvard  University. 
This  is  virtually  a  set  of  four  scales,  including  one  in  each  of 
the  four  types  of  composition:  description,  exposition,  argu- 
mentation, and  narration.  Each  scale  consists  of  six  com- 
positions, selected  from  the  work  of  eighth  grade  pupils,  and 
assigned  score  values  according  to  the  marks  given  by  the 
teachers.  They  are  so  selected  that  the  scores  approximate 
forty-five  per  cent,  fifty-five  per  cent,  sixty-five  per  cent, 
seventy-five  per  cent,  eighty-five  per  cent,  and  ninety-five  per 
cent  in  each  set.  Each  specimen  is  followed  by  a  specific 
statement  of  its  merits  and  defects,  as  well  as  of  the  bases  for 
its  superiority  to  the  one  below  it,  and  its  inferiority  to  the 
one  above  it,  in  the  scale.  In  this  way  it  is  designed  by  spe- 
cific statements  to  make  definite  the  merits  which  the  scale 
undertakes  to  measure.  Both  the  Harvard-Newton  and  the 
Hillegas  scales  are  rendering  service  in  standardizing  and 
making  definite  the  evaluation  of  English  compositions. 

Possibly  the  best  known  educational  tests  are  those  de- 
signed by  S.  A.  Courtis,  and  regularly  known  as  the  Courtis 
Standard  Tests  (Series  B),2  in  the  four  fundamental  opera- 
tions of  arithmetic.  This  series  "represents  an  attempt  to 
secure  definite  objective  standards  for  each  of  the  four  opera- 
tions with  whole  numbers — addition,  subtraction,  multiplica- 
tion, and  division."  The  following  are  typical  problems: 

'Ballou,  "Scales  for  the  Measurement  of  Composition,"  Harvard- 
Newton  Bulletin,  No.  8,  September,  1914. 

2  Series  A,  dealing  with  arithmetical  correlations,  and  Series  C,  dealing 
with  English  work,  are  little  used.  The  best  description  of  the  tests  is 
in  Courtis,  "  Manual  of  Instructions  for  Giving  and  Scoring  the  Courtis 
Standard  Tests  in  the  Three  R's." 


STANDARDS  AND   MEASUREMENTS  IN   INSTRUCTION      277 


927  75088824  8246  94)85352 

379  57406394  29 

756 

837 

924 

no 

854 

965 

344 


In  the  test  for  each  operation  only  a  limited  time  is  allowed 
the  student,  and  the  number  of  examples  given  is  about 
twenty-four.  Scores  are  taken  for  both  accuracy  and  speed. 
The  accuracy  score  is  based  upon  the  number  of  examples  he 
can  work  correctly  in  the  time  allowance,  which  is  too  small 
for  any  student  to  work  all.  The  score  for  speed  is  based  upon 
the  total  number  of  examples  attempted  in  the  time  allowed. 
Efficiency  in  the  four  fundamentals  is  thus  measured  in  terms 
of  both  accuracy  and  speed,  with  the  thought  that  by  proper 
drill  each  be  raised  to  its  maximum  without  sacrificing  a 
proper  degree  of  the  other  in  so  doing.  Both  for  the  stand- 
ardizing of  arithmetical  achievement  and  for  the  detection 
and  remedying  of  weaknesses  in  the  teaching  of  arithmetic, 
the  Courtis  Tests  have  rendered  notable  service. 

In  the  field  of  secondary  education,  practically  all  of  the 
tests  so  far  devised  have  appeared  within  the  past  three  or 
four  years,  and  are  necessarily  tentative  and  almost  untried, 
though  of  real  service.  To  a  considerable  degree,  the  lack  of 
standardized  tests  in  secondary  school  subjects  is  doubtless 
due  to  the  lack  of  agreement  among  teachers  as  to  the  edu- 
cational products  toward  which  the  various  high  school  studies 
should  strive.  Professor  W.  S.  Monroe  has  worked  out  a 
series  of  Standard  Research  Tests  in  Algebra,  which  were 
probably  the  pioneers  in  the  field.1  We  quote  his  description: 

1  Monroe,  De  Voss,  and  Kelly,  "Educational  Tests  and  Measure- 
ments," p.  228. 


278  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

These  tests  consist  of  a  series  of  six  tests.  Each  of  the  first  £ve 
tests  is  designed  to  measure  the  ability  to  do  one  of  the  operations 
occurring  in  the  solution  of  simple  equations.  The  tests  are: 

Test  I,  ±  a  (±  bx  ±  c),  a,  b,  and  c,  being  not  greater  than  9 
and  not  all  positive. 

Test    II,  Clearing  equations  of  fractions. 

Test  III,  Solving  for  x,  a  special  case  of  division. 

Test  IV,  Transposition. 

Test  V,  Collecting  terms,  a  special  case  of  addition  and  sub- 
traction. 

Test  VI,  Simple  equations  to  be  solved. 

In  giving  the  tests  each  pupil  is  provided  with  a  printed  copy  of 
the  exercises  to  be  done.  A  definite  time  is  allowed  for  each  test. 
The  ability  of  a  pupil  is  measured  by  the  number  of  exercises  he  does 
in  a  given  time,  and  by  the  accuracy  of  his  work. 

These  tests  can  best  be  illustrated  by  specimen  problems: 

Test     I,  Multiplication.     4(3*  —  4)  = 
Test    II,  Reduction  to  a  Common  Denominator. 
5  +  6*      4*  -  3 

12  15 

Test  III,  Division.     14*  =  34 

Test  IV,  Transposition.     18  —  6x  —  24  =  —  14*  +  42 
Test    V,  Collecting  Terms.     -  8*  +  40*  -  3  -  8  -  32 

Test  VI,  Solving  Equations.     4*  +  5  -  **  +  3  =  o 

15  21 

A  somewhat  similar  series,  which  the  author  calls  Prelimi- 
nary Algebra  Tests,  has  been  devised  by  C.  Eben  Stromquist. 
The  following  specimen  problems  from  the  five  tests  of  the 
series  will  suffice  to  show  the  character  of  the  series: 

Test     I,  Addition.     Add: 

+  2**   -  OJC  +  8 

-  5**  -  3*  -  6 
+  us*  -  4*  -  7 


Test    II,  Subtraction.     Subtract  the  second  from  the  first: 
-  70*  +  na  -  18 
+  80*  +    30  —  23 


STANDARDS  AND  MEASUREMENTS  IN  INSTRUCTION      279 
Test  III,  Multiplication.     Multiply: 


4*  -   jy 


Test  IV,  Division.     Divide  the  second  polynomial  by  the  first, 
placing  the  quotient  above  the  line  over  the  dividend: 

5**  —  *  —  6)5**  +  gx3  —  2&X2  —  8*  +  24 

Test    V,  Factoring.     Factor  to  simplest  factors: 

4**  +  *  -  33  = 

Another  series  is  that  devised  by  Henry  G.  Hotz,  which 
he  calls  First  Year  Algebra  Scales.  Illustrative  problems 
from  the  series  are  the  following: 

Addition  and  Subtraction 
Carefully  perform  the  operations  as  indicated. 

yx  —  x  +  6  —  4  = 
3  —  2X          x  +  i  i 

(x  —  i)1       (x  —  i)2       (x  —  i) 

Multiplication  and  Division 

Carefully  perform  the  operations  as  indicated. 
Reduce  all  answers  to  their  simplest  forms. 

ff3  •  (  -  30)  •  (  -  20)  = 
*  +  27       ^  3*  +  9  = 

**  +  X  -  12     '     X+4 

Equation  and  Formula 
Solve  the  following  equations  and  formulas. 

10  —  i  ix  =  4  —  8z 
6*  -  2  _  3**  -f  13 

*  +  3        3~*«-9 


280 


PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 


Graphs 

The  following  graph  represents  the  temperature  at  various  hours 
of  a  certain  day: 


•ft 

28 
24 
20 
16 
12 

^x-' 

*  —  —  , 

X 

f^^ 

x^ 

/ 

\ 

x 

^-—  -^ 

/ 

^ 

8 
4 

0 
( 

57          89         10        11         12         12          34          56 
•  A.M.                                                               P.M. 

How  many  degrees  was  it  at  twelve  o'clock  ? 
Find  three  pairs  of  values  for  x  and  y  in  the  following  equation  and 
then  draw  the  graph  of 

x  +  y  =  5 


STANDARDS  AND  MEASUREMENTS  IN  INSTRUCTION      281 

Problems 

Do  not  work  out  the  answer  to  the  problem  —  merely  indicate  the 
answer  or  state  the  equation  in  each  case. 

A  man  is  m  years  old;  how  old  was  he  r  years  ago  ? 

A  train  leaves  a  station  and  travels  at  the  rate  of  40  miles  an 
hour.  Two  hours  later  a  second  train  leaves  the  same  station  and 
travels  in  the  same  direction  at  the  rate  of  55  miles  an  hour.  Where 
will  the  second  train  pass  the  first? 

A  fourth  series  of  tests  in  first  year  algebra  is  that  pro- 
posed by  Rugg  and  Clark.  The  following  are  illustrative 
examples  of  the  series: 

Test  No.     i.     Collecting  terms.  jx  +  $y  —  42  —  33* 

Test  No.    2.     Substitution.     If  x  =  2  and  y  —  3,  what  does 

2X*  +  $xy  =  ? 

Test  No.    3.     Subtraction.   From  20+36—4  take  50  —  26+1 

Test  No.    4.     Simple  equations.  zx  =  12  +  4* 

Test  No.    5.     Parentheses.  3(4*  —  7) 

Test  No.    6.     Special  products.  (30  —  4)* 

Test  No.    7.     Exponents.  o2  .  a3 

Test  No.    8.     Factoring.  x2  -  5*  +  6 
Test  No.    9.     Clearing  fractions. 

x  +  3  _  x  -  2  _ 

4  5 

Test  No.  10.     Fractional  equations. 

2X  +  3   _  X  —  2 

5  3 

Test  No.  n.     Practical  formuls.     If  a  =  b/c  what  does  c  =  ? 
Test  No.  12.     Quadratic  equations.         x2  —  gx  +  20  =  o 
Test  No.  13.     Simultaneous  equations.    2*  +  3?  =  5 


Test  No.  14.    Radicals. 

Supplementary  Tests. 
Test  No.  15.     Graphs. 

Test  No.  16.     Quadratic  equations          sx*  +  $x  —  i  =  o 
(irrational  roots). 

Somewhat   more   extended   than   these  is   the  series  of 
Rogers  Tests.    These  include   (i)   a  "Computation  Test," 


282  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

with  simple  problems  involving  the  principal  operations  up 
to  simple  fractional  equations  and  simultaneous  equations  of 
the  first  degree;  (2)  an  "Interpolation  Test,"  wherein  the 
student  is  to  insert  the  appropriate  terms  hi  series  such  as 
24  —  8  10  —  14;  (3)  a  test  for  "Matching  Nth  Terms  and 
Series,"  wherein  the  student  is  to  select  from  a  given  list  of 
formulas  the  appropriate  one  for  each  series  in  the  test,  such 
as  the  formula  4»  —  i  for  the  given  series  3  7  n  15  19  23  27; 
and  (4)  a  "Reasoning  Test,"  with  problems  like  the  following: 

M  is  younger  than  N  f  therefore  K  is L 

K  is  older  than  N        j 

M  is  older  than  L        [  therefore  N  is L 

A  test  in  physics  has  been  devised  by  Professor  Starch. 
His  directions  for  the  use  of  the  test  are  the  following: 

"The  test  may  be  given  at  the  end  of  the  year  or  the  various 
sections  may  be  given  after  the  completion  of  the  different  topics. 

"Allow  the  pupils  as  much  time  as  they  reasonably  need  to  com- 
plete as  many  of  the  statements  or  problems  as  they  can. 

"Score  the  tests  by  determining  the  number  of  statements  com- 
pleted or  solved  correctly.  The  number,  not  the  percentage,  of  the 
statements  finished  correctly  is  the  score." 

The  following  are  illustrative  problems  or  statements  from  the 
five  sections  of  the  test: 

Mechanics 

The  erg  is  the  work  done  by  a  force  of acting  through  a 

distance  of 

The  specific  gravity  of  a  wooden  ball  that  floats  two-thirds 
under  water  is 

Heat 
The  number  of  work  units  that  correspond  to  a  heat  unit  is 

called 

Sound 
The  frequency  of  vibration  of  a  string  varies  inversely  as 

Light 

A  continuous  spectrum  composed  of  the  colors  from to 

is  produced  by  passing    light  through  a 

prism. 


STANDARDS   AND   MEASUREMENTS   IN   INSTRUCTION      283 

Magnetism  and  Electricity 
The  instrument  for  the  comparison  of  currents  by  means  of 

is  called  a  galvanometer. 

If  a  storage  cell  has  an  E.M.F.  of  two  volts  and  furnishes  a 

current  of  five  amperes,  its  rate  of  expenditure  of  enerfy 

is watts. 

The  distribution  of  problems  is  as  follows.  Mechanics  28,  heat  8, 
sound  9,  light  9,  magnetism  and  electricity  21. 

Professor  Starch  has  also  given  us  a  set  of  tests  for  the 
subjects  of  Latin,  German,  and  French,  dealing  with  vocab- 
ulary and  reading  in  each.  The  form  of  test  is  the  same  for 
the  three  languages.  The  general  instructions  read  as  fol- 
lows: "Do  these  tests  according  to  the  directions  given  and 
hand  them  in  at  the  next  time.  Do  not  consult  any  diction- 
ary, vocabulary,  or  person." 

The  vocabulary  test  is  a  double  one,  each  part  consisting 
of  one  hundred  words  of  the  foreign  language  alphabetically 
arranged,  and  on  the  same  page  is  an  alphabetical  list  of  the 
one  hundred  English  equivalents,  numbered  in  order  as  they 
stand.  The  pupil  is  directed  to  place  after  each  foreign  lan- 
guage word  the  number  of  its  English  equivalent. 

In  the  reading  test  the  instructions  are  these:  "Translate 
the  following  sentences.  Write  the  translation  under  each 
sentence."  Then  follow  thirty  sentences,  the  first  of  which 
are  very  simple  one-word  sentences,  and  the  remainder  of 
increasing  difficulty  and  length.  For  the  three  languages, 
the  thirtieth  sentences,  presumably  representing  the  greatest 
degree  of  difficulty,  are  the  following:  "Rex  erat  ^Eneas  nobis 
quo  iustior  alter,  nee  pietate  fuit,  nee  bello  major  et  armis." 
"Also  gingen  die  zwei  entgegen  der  sinkenden  Sonne,  die  in 
Volken  sich  tief,  gewitterdrohend  verhuellte."  "Du  reste, 
il  6tait  demeure  aussi  simple  que  le  premier  jour." 

"The  vocabulary  test  is  scored  by  ascertaining  the  num- 
ber of  words  designated  correctly  in  each  list.  .  .  .  The 
reading  test  is  scored  by  determining  the  number  of  sentences 
translated  entirely  and  correctly." 


284  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

A  German-vocabulary  test  and  a  Latin-vocabulary  test 
somewhat  similar  to  those  just  described  have  been  devised 
by  Professor  F.  L.  Clapp.  The  German-vocabulary  test  con- 
sists of  three  hundred  German  words,  the  Latin-vocabulary 
test  of  two  hundred  Latin  words.  The  essential  feature  here 
is  that  the  pupil  does  not  select  an  appropriate  meaning  from 
a  given  list,  but  must  write  the  English  equivalent  after  each 
foreign  language  word,  quite  unassisted  by  any  suggestion 
which  the  list  of  such  equivalents  might  offer.  Moreover, 
the  words  which  constitute  the  list  are  not  merely  typical 
words  chosen  at  random,  but  are  those  which  occur  most  fre- 
quently in  the  texts  usually  read  in  secondary  schools. 

Two  other  tests  which  Professor  Clapp  has  devised  are 
his  German-construction  test  and  his  Latin-construction  test. 
The  instructions,  which  are  nearly  identical  for  the  two  tests, 
are  as  follows: 

I.     For  application. 

1.  Allow minutes  for  the  test. 

2.  Emphasize  the  fact  that  the  test  is  a  construction  test 

and  the  form  of  the  word  is  the  important  con- 
sideration. 

3.  Explain  that  a  few  words  are  omitted  from  the  vocabu- 

lary because,  if  given,  they  would  suggest  the  proper 
construction. 

4.  Take  the  time  of  each  student  and  have  it  recorded 

in  the  proper  space. 

II.     For  scoring. 

1.  The  value  of  each  sentence  and  of  each  word  is  indi- 

cated below. 

2.  (German  test.)     Subtract  two  points  for  a  wrong  word 

order. 

(Latin  test.)     Give  full  value  for  constructions  other 
than  those  below,  if  correct. 

3.  (Recording  of  score.) 

4.  To  obtain  the  final  score  add  the  scores  for  the  differ- 

ent sentences. 


STANDARDS  AND  MEASUREMENTS  IN  INSTRUCTION      285 

Illustrative  sentences  are  the  following: 

i  4          3 

Agricola  puerum  laudat.     (8) 

4  3  3 

Domicilia  movere  cupiunt.     (10) 

2        I          I  I  2  I 

Darf  ich  drei  gute  Bleistifte  haben?     (8) 

12  I  2  2       I  I 

Die  Stadte  sind  grosser  als  sie  waren.     (10) 

The  tests  for  which  the  above  sentences  are  the  solution 
are  these: 

Latin  test: 

The  farmer  is  praising  the  boy. 
(agricola)        (laudo)     (puer) 
They  want  to  move        the  houses, 
(cupio)      (moveo)     (domicilium) 
German  test: 

May  I  have  three  good  pencils? 
The  cities  are  larger  than  they  were. 

An  accompanying  vocabulary  includes  the  following 
meanings: 

have — haben  city — die  Stadt 

three — drei  be — sein 

good — gut  large — grosz 

pencil— der  Bleistift  than — als 

Our  enumeration  of  tests  for  secondary  school  studies 
must  close  with  the  mention  of  four  which  are  still  too  re- 
cent to  be  more  than  tentative  in  character.  Under  the  title 
of  "A  Preliminary  Study  of  the  Measurement  of  Abilities  in 
Geometry,"  l  Stockard  and  Bell  describe  a  test  designed  "to 
call  for  information  that  is  to  be  found  in  all  standard  text- 
books; to  test  for  important  and  fundamental  principles  of 
geometry;  to  provide  such  a  range  of  questions  as  to  be  repre- 
sentative of  the  whole  field  of  elementary  geometry,  and  in- 

1  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  December,  1916. 


286  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

dude  memory  facts,  knowledge  of  content,  organization  of 
subject  matter,  and  power  to  do  'originals';  and  to  confine 
the  list  to  such  dimensions  that  every  question  could  be  tried 
by  the  average  high  school  pupil  in  a  period  of  forty  min- 
utes." The  Rogers  Tests,  referred  to  on  page  281,  include 
also  a  Geometry  Test,  wherein  a  number  of  geometrical  prop- 
ositions are  to  be  proved,  the  proofs  being  based  upon  cer- 
tain geometrical  facts  supplied  in  the  test,  and  no  other  facts 
being  assumed  or  employed. 

Still  more  recent  is  a  scale  in  ancient  history,  suggested 
by  Leroy  W.  Sackett,1  and  described  as  a  test  of  "ability  to 
recall  definite  facts  promptly"  in  the  field  of  study  indicated. 

Finally,  mention  should  be  made  of  a  test  which,  though 
applying  to  no  specific  secondary  school  subjects,  is  intended 
for  high  school  students.  This  is  the  Kansas  Silent  Reading 
Test  Number  III,  devised  by  F.  J.  Kelly,  and  is  one  of  a 
series  of  three  covering  the  whole  range  of  public  school  work 
above  the  two  primary  grades.  The  test  consists  of  sixteen 
brief  paragraphs,  each  closing  with  a  question  the  answer  to 
which  involves  an  understanding  of  the  thought  of  the  para- 
graph. The  aim  of  the  test  is  to  measure  the  ability  of  the 
pupil  to  comprehend  what  he  reads. 

The  above  will  give  the  reader  some  idea  of  the  meaning 
of  standardization  of  attainments  in  school  instruction,  its 
forms,  and  the  methods  of  its  application.  It  must  be  re- 
membered that  standards  or  scales  have  been  attempted  in 
subjects  other  than  those  mentioned,  and  that  details  of  deri- 
vation and  application  have  been  omitted  in  our  treatment. 
Despite  the  small  amount  of  work  yet  accomplished  in  stand- 
ardization, especially  in  secondary  education,  an  understand- 
ing of  its  general  principles,  its  method  and  value,  may  be 
of  much  practical  service  to  the  progressive  teacher  on  the 
lookout  for  anything  whereby  his  efficiency  may  be  increased 
and  his  work  made  more  significant. 

1<(A  Scale  in  Ancient  History,"  by  Leroy  W.  Sackett,  in  Journal  of 
Educational  Psychology,  May,  1917. 


STANDARDS   AND   MEASUREMENTS   IN   INSTRUCTION      287 


The  Grading  of  Pupils'  Work. — The  present  section  has 
hitherto  dealt  with  educational  measurements  wherein  a  zero 
grade  was  accessible  as  a  basis  for  measurement  of  ability. 
We  observed,  however,  that  in  the  case  of  the  surveyor  who 
did  not  know  the  sea  level,  a  comparative  evaluation  is  usually 
possible  even  though  no  zero  grade  or  absolute  standard  is 
available.  Even  though  we  may  not  say  how  many  units 
of  ability  an  individual  possesses,  we  can  determine  his  rela- 
tive efficiency  as  compared  with  others  of  his  class.  While  we 
thus  lose  the  benefit  of  an  absolute  standard,  we  have  in  the 
performances  of  many  individuals  a  relative  standard  which 
may  serve  our  purpose. 

Investigation,  as  well  as  common  experience,  has  shown 
that  the  distribution  of  abilities  among  the  members  of  a 
group  has  really  a  considerable  degree  of  constancy.  Only 
a  few  members  of  the  typical  class  are  brilliant,  only  a  few 
stupid.  The  proportion  of  brilliant,  stupid,  and  mediocre 
seems  to  be  fairly  stable,  and,  in  fact,  is  capable  of  approxima- 
tion in  mathematical  terms.  The  principle  may  be  illus- 
trated as  follows:  We  find  in  our  school  one  hundred  boys 
about  twelve  years  of  age.  All  of  the  hundred  are  lined  up 
for  a  foot  race  across  a  field,  and  started  simultaneously. 
While  all  are  still  running,  we  give  a  signal  for  each  to  halt 
where  he  is.  We  might  then  find  some  such  result  as  this: 

i  boy    had  run  about  200  yards. 


2  boys 

8 
16 
25 
23 
14 

9 

i  boy 

i      " 


190 
180 
170 
160 
150 
140 
130 
1 20 
no 


For  convenience  we  graph  the  results,  letting  the  height 
of  each  column  or  rectangle  represent  the  number  of  boys 
who  have  run  the  indicated  number  of  yards. 


288 


PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 
25 


1        1 

9 

14 

• 

16 

8 

-«-,       1 

110        120 

130 

no 

150 

160         170         180         190          200  yfls. 

FIGURE  i. — Graph  of  normal  class 

The  fact  that  the  great  majority  of  the  boys  come  near 
the  middle  of  the  scale  of  ability  merely  accords  with  a  sci- 
entific principle.  Scientific  study  has  shown  that  in  a  normal 
representative  group,  if  there  is  no  influence  to  affect  the 
composition  of  the  group,  the  distribution  of  abilities  in  other 
fields  besides  speed  tends  toward  a  constant  relationship. 
We  are  told  that  in  a  normal  class  in  school  this  distribution 
of  intellectual  ability  necessarily  holds  the  same  as  elsewhere. 
Various  formulations  of  such  a  class  have  been  proposed, 
though  the  scientific  principle  involved  is  a  highly  complex 
one,  and  its  applications  have  not  yet  been  fully  worked  out. 
The  following  is  a  typical  formulation  for  the  distribution  in 
a  normal  class: 

4%  are  of  high  ability. 
21%  are  of  good  ability, 
50%  are  of  fair  ability. 
21%  are  of  poor  ability. 

4%  are  of  very  poor  ability. 

While  some  variability  exists  in  the  number  of  divisions  and 
in  the  corresponding  size  of  each,  we  are  told  that  the  classi- 
fication must  be  such  that  approximately  half  of  the  class 
belong  to  a  group  of  mediocre  ability,  with  one-fourth  of  the 
class  rated  higher,  one-fourth  lower  than  this  mediocre  group. 
An  attempt  has  been  made  to  apply  this  principle  to  the 
grading  of  students  in  school  and  college  classes.  Assuming 


STANDARDS  AND  MEASUREMENTS  IN  INSTRUCTION      289 

that  the  classes  are  normal  and  that  each  student's  work  is 
representative  of  his  ability,  we  are  told  that  at  the  end  of  a 
course1  we  should  grade  the  best  four  per  cent  of  the  class  in 
the  highest  group,  the  next  twenty-one  per  cent  in  the  next 
group,  the  next  fifty  per  cent  in  the  middle  group,  the  next 
twenty-one  per  cent  in  the  next  lower  group,  and  the  lowest 
four  per  cent  in  the  lowest  group.  Possibly  these  groups 
might  be  thought  of  as  "excellent,"  "good,"  "fair,"  "poor," 
and  "very  poor"  respectively,  provided  the  name  thus  as- 
signed does  not  affect  the  judgment  of  the  teacher  in  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  grades.  Or,  using  letters  to  represent  the 
five  groups  of  merit,  we  would  give  four  per  cent  of  our  class 
a  grade  of  "A,"  twenty-one  per  cent  "B,"  fifty  per  cent  "C," 
twenty-one  per  cent  "D,"  and  four  per  cent  "E."  Had  we 
chosen  to  vary  the  number  of  levels  into  which  to  divide  the 
class,  our  percentage  would  naturally  be  different,  although 
the  same  principle  would  govern. 

The  superiority  of  this  system  of  grading  the  work  of  stu- 
dents over  an  assumed  absolute  basis,  such  as  the  percentage 
rating,  is  in  several  respects  both  theoretical  and  practical. 
In  the  first  place,  the  use  of  a  percentage  system  implies  an 
absolute  standard  of  evaluation,  with  both  a  zero  and  a  per- 
fection grade  known.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  neither  of  the 
latter  is  available.  One  hundred  per  cent  cannot  represent 
perfect  attainment  either  for  class  work  or  for  examination. 
That  a  student's  performance  of  every  task  and  every  possi- 
bility of  learning  has  been  complete  every  moment  of  the 
term  or  year  is  absurd  and,  indeed,  nobody  knows  what  such 
perfection  would  be.  As  an  examination  grade,  perfection 
is  not  possible  unless  the  test  be  so  exhaustive  and  difficult 
that  more  could  not  have  been  accomplished.  The  student 
who  requires  the  entire  period  to  produce  a  "perfect"  paper 
has  not  done  as  creditable  a  piece  of  work  as  the  one  who  fin- 
ished an  equally  good  paper  long  before  the  closing  bell  rang. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  zero  quality  of  work  is  inconceivable 
1  This  refers  only  to  final  grades,  and  not  to  daily  class  grades. 


290  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

for  any  bon-fade  member  of  the  class.  Thus,  the  impossi- 
bility of  an  absolute  standard  or  scale  precludes  percentage 
grading  as  a  reliable  index  of  student  attainment. 

The  practical  objections  to  ranking  students  on  a  per- 
centage basis  are  well  known.  The  absurdity  of  saying  that 
one  student  has  done  one  ninety-fourth  better,  or  two  eighty- 
seconds  poorer,  work  than  his  fellow  has  appealed  to  every 
conscientious  teacher,  who  has  often  sympathized  with  the 
pupil's  revolt  at  the  injustice  resulting  from  the  attempt  at 
such  discrimination.  A  serious  weakness  in  the  instruction 
also  may  be  attributed  to  the  attempt  at  absolute  evaluation 
of  students'  work  in  the  classroom  or  examination.  This  is 
the  unsystematic  and  widely  varying  grading  of  students  on 
the  part  of  teachers  whose  ideas  of  relative  values  are  differ- 
ent. Some  teachers,  more  kind  than  conscientious,  are  liberal 
with  high  grades.  Others,  thinking  to  maintain  high  scho- 
lastic standards,  give  many  low  grades.  Still  others,  feeling 
uncertain  of  the  quality  of  work  done,  give  nearly  all  students 
medium  grades,  with  the  thought  that  such  grades  cannot  be 
far  wrong  in  any  case.  The  distribution  of  grades  on  the 
system  proposed,  often  referred  to  as  "scientific  grading,"  is 
designed  to  meet  the  objections  raised  against  any  attempt 
at  absolute  grading  by  either  letters  or  percentages.  A  con- 
siderable number  of  educational  institutions,  especially  col- 
leges and  universities,  have  adopted  the  system,  and  report 
highly  beneficial  results. 

However,  this  scientific  distribution  of  grades  has  its 
limitations  as  well  as  its  merits,  and  is  not  universally  ac- 
cepted as  the  solution  of  the  grading  problem.  Let  us  re- 
vert to  the  illustration  of  the  schoolboys  in  the  foot  race.  It 
is  evident  that  if  before  the  start  all  the  boys  who  had  ever 
won  a  foot  race  before  were  debarred,  the  distribution  of  re- 
sults would  have  been  different.  Presumably  the  graph  on 
page  288  would  have  been  greatly  altered  at  the  right.  The 
elimination  might  have  removed  the  three  best  runners,  and 
most  or  all  of  the  iSo-yard  class,  though  without  much  effect 


STANDARDS  AND  MEASUREMENTS  IN  INSTRUCTION 

upon  the  rest  of  the  group.  Or  suppose  that  part  of  the 
younger  boys  had  just  been  playing  vigorously  and  were 
fatigued.  Then  the  left  part  of  the  graph  would  have  been 
extended  to  the  left,  since  the  performance  of  that  group 
would  be  greatly  reduced.  The  result  hi  either  case,  or  other 
cases  easily  imagined,  would  no  longer  follow  the  normal  dis- 
tribution, due  to  the  influence  of  an  outside  disturbing  factor. 
Our  specification  that  the  group  be  typical  would  not  be  met. 
In  the  distribution  of  class  grades  the  same  principle  would 
apply.  The  division  of  a  class  into  sections  on  the  basis  of 
age  or  proficiency,  or  a  deficiency  of  preliminary  training  on 
the  part  of  a  considerable  number  of  pupils,  would  greatly 
alter  the  distribution  of  abilities,  giving  us  graphs  similar  to 
the  following: 


FIGURE  2. — Class  divided  in  two  FIGURE  3. — Class  divided  in  two 

sections:  Section  II,  with  young-  sections:   Section   I,  with   older 

er  or  less  able  students  or  abler  students 


FIGURE  4. — Class  with    a  considerable  number  of  students  deficient  in 
preliminary  training 


2Q2  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

Or  we  might  have  a  class  so  small  that  all  of  the  various 
grades  cannot  be  adequately  represented,  as,  for  example, 
with  a  class  of  ten  pupils.  It  is  evident  that  the  distribu- 
tion can  be  strictly  applied  only  when  the  class  is  normal 
and  of  considerable  size.  The  principle  of  distribution  of 
grades  is  thoroughly  sound,  but  must  be  applied  rationally 
and  discriminatingly. 

Anything  more  than  this  rapid  survey  of  some  of  the 
standardization  already  attempted  would  be  inappropriate 
for  this  text.  Full  expositions  would  require  more  space, 
and  are  readily  available  elsewhere.  Moreover,  the  problem 
of  standardization  is  receiving  much  attention  in  the  educa- 
tional world,  and  it  is  reasonable  to  expect  that  before  this 
account  reaches  the  hand  of  the  reader  much  of  the  work 
already  done  will  have  been  reconstructed  and  helpful  stand- 
ards formulated  in  fields  not  yet  provided  for. 

4.    THE  PRACTICAL  VALUE  OF  STANDARDIZATION  AND 
MEASUREMENT  IN  SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION 

The  Teacher's  Use  of  Measurement. — Do  standards  in 
education  represent  degrees  of  excellence  to  which  the  pupil 
is  expected  to  attain?  Or  are  they  degrees  of  excellence  by 
means  of  which  students'  work  can  be  evaluated?  The  dis- 
cussion in  the  preceding  section  implies  a  negative  answer  to 
the  former  question,  to  the  latter  an  affirmative,  but  with 
reservations.  The  only  standard  which  could  be  used  for  all 
to  seek  to  attain  would  necessarily  be  perfection,  but  perfec- 
tion is,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  unattainable.  On  the 
other  hand,  an  absolute  standard  must  represent  a  series  of 
grades  of  excellence  such  that  any  piece  of  work  may  be 
evaluated  by  rinding  it  equal  to  some  known  value  in  the 
established  scale. 

We  saw,  further,  that  standards  are  essential  for  the  ac- 
curate and  scientific  measurement  of  educational  products. 
In  the  absence  of  such  standards,,  however,  the  teacher  need 


STANDARDS  AND  MEASUREMENTS   IN  INSTRUCTION      293 

not  lose  all  of  the  value  to  be  derived  from  educational  mea- 
surement. Progressive  teaching  is  that  which  is  permeated 
by  a  consciousness  of  its  aims  and  a  constant  search  for  the 
best  means  for  their  realization.  The  teacher  must,  therefore, 
be  an  experimenter,  employing  all  means  for  the  improvement 
of  his  instruction,  even  though  these  means  fall  short  of  per- 
fection, and  devising  applications  and  extensions  of  even  the 
inadequate  means  in  his  quest  for  greater  efficiency.  The 
standards  and  measurements  we  have  treated  in  this  chapter 
are  not  perfected  but,  on  the  contrary,  are  only  partially  suc- 
cessful. However,  in  the  hands  of  the  progressive  instructor, 
some  of  them  at  least  may  be  made  to  render  valuable  service 
in  the  improvement  of  teaching  and  the  extension  of  high 
ideals  of  scholarship.  Some  suggestions  on  the  practical  ap- 
plication of  a  few  of  the  standards  and  measurements  we 
have  studied  may  prove  of  profit  to  the  high  school  teacher. 
Of  the  absolute  standards,  that  for  handwriting  is  of  value 
to  the  secondary  school  teacher  chiefly  as  suggestive  of  method 
of  procedure.  The  Courtis  Standard  Tests  are  intended  pri- 
marily for  elementary  education,  although  they  may  well  be 
employed  in  the  arithmetical  work  of  the  junior  high  school. 
The  Hillegas  Test  aspires  to  serve  in  secondary  as  well  as 
elementary  education,  but  the  criticism  we  have  noted  is 
even  more  applicable  to  its  use  in  high  school  work  than  in 
the  lower  grades.  The  more  advanced  the  work  the  more 
complex,  and  hence  the  more  variant,  will  be  the  judging 
of  compositions  of  students.  The  Harvard-Newton  Scale  ap- 
pears more  workable  as  a  standard,  especially  for  the  eighth 
grade  work,  and  may  with  profit  be  extended  and  employed 
in  the  other  grades  of  the  high  school.  However,  as  a  means 
of  comparing  the  work  of  any  class  with  the  typical  work  of 
many  other  similar  classes,  the  data  as  yet  secured  are  scarcely 
adequate  for  anything  like  standardization.  The  tests  for 
algebra,  geometry,  physics,  foreign  languages,  and  history 
are,  of  course,  designed  specifically  for  secondary  education. 
Undoubtedly  the  tests  in  the  field  of  algebra  have  been  de- 


294  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

veloped  much  beyond  those  of  the  other  fields,  and  are  based 
more  clearly  upon  established  norms  of  what  the  study  should 
produce.  Here,  more  than  in  the  other  studies,  the  element 
of  skill  is  involved,  and  less  of  thought  power  and  informa- 
tion— a  circumstance  which  renders  algebra  far  more  amena- 
ble to  measurement.  The  tests  in  secondary  education,  the 
best  known  of  which  have  been  briefly  described  in  the  pre- 
ceding section,  are  as  yet  too  new  to  have  been  thoroughly 
tried  out,  but  an  intelligent  use  of  them,  with  due  recogni- 
tion of  their  limitation,  can  scarcely  fail  to  give  the  teacher 
a  better  knowledge  of  what  his  pupils  are  doing  and  what 
they  need,  both  individually  and  collectively. 

In  the  absence  of  fully  established  standards  for  evalua- 
tion, the  progressive  teacher  need  not  idly  wait  for  the  de- 
ficiency to  be  supplied.  Not  as  accurate  scientific  investiga- 
tion, to  be  sure,  but  for  a  better  understanding  of  his  own 
work,  any  trained  high  school  teacher  ought  to  be  able  to  de- 
vise for  himself  tests  whereby  the  profit  derivable  from  the 
standardization  is  in  some  degree  attainable  for  him.  In  the 
formulation  of  such  a  test,  clearly  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to 
determine  just  which  of  the  five  aims  of  instruction  figure  the 
most  prominently  in  his  subject.  If  his  field  be  geometry, 
for  example,  he  may  decide  to  test  for  the  thought  power  of 
his  pupils.  Since  he  must,  so  far  as  possible,  isolate  the  fac- 
tor for  which  he  is  testing,  he  will  endeavor  to  formulate  such 
a  test  that  the  other  factors  (knowledge,  appreciation,  effi- 
ciency in  expression  and  application,  and  permanency)  are 
as  nearly  as  possible  eliminated.  This  does  not  mean  that 
the  test  will  involve  none  of  these  four  factors,  but  rather  that 
in  so  far  as  they  are  involved  their  mastery  sufficient  for  the 
test  is  assured  at  the  outset,  so  that  no  failure  in  one  of  them 
can  prevent  the  free  exercise  of  the  thought  power  which  is 
to  be  tested.  Thus,  any  definitions,  modes  of  mathematical 
expression,  and  the  like,  must  first  be  made  sure  of  as  being 
in  the  student's  possession.  Then  the  test  can  be  so  formu- 
lated that  only  thought  power  functions  in  the  result. 


STANDARDS  AND  MEASUREMENTS   IN  INSTRUCTION      295 

Similar  methods  may  be  employed  in  other  fields  of  study, 
and  in  testing  for  other  educational  products.  Tests  for 
memory  are,  doubtless,  easy  to  devise.  The  measuring  of 
efficiency  in  expression  or  in  application,  and  of  the  perma- 
nency of  acquired  experience  is  also  possible.  The  testing  for 
appreciation  has  always  been  a  puzzling  problem  for  the 
teacher,  and  the  writer  is  indisposed  to  tell  how  it  can  be 
done.  At  best,  the  testing  must  be  indirect,  and  applied  to 
the  somewhat  remote  and  unreliable  products.  Since  it  is 
evident  that  what  is  not  felt  cannot  be  expressed,  the  ex- 
pression by  the  pupil  of  what  he  has  felt  is  doubtless  the  most 
available  index  of  the  feeling.  Here,  as  in  the  illustration 
from  geometry,  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  care  must  be 
taken  that  defective  power  of  expression  is  not  mistaken  for 
lack  of  content  for  expression.  The  teacher  should  therefore 
endeavor  to  determine  the  pupil's  ability  to  express  himself 
before  the  test  for  appreciation  is  undertaken.  Another  form 
of  test,  from  which  expression  is  eliminated,  is  that  of  calling 
for  a  comparative  evaluation  of  specimens  of  aesthetic  material. 
Here,  however,  the  fact  that  different  kinds  of  material  have 
not  the  same  appeal  for  different  individuals  renders  inade- 
quate any  test  save  a  very  extended  one  with  widely  different 
types  of  content. 

However,  the  formulation  of  a  test  for  a  given  factor  does 
not  consist  alone  hi  the  elimination  of  all  other  factors.  The 
test  must  actually  hit  the  thing  sought  for.  Obviously,  it 
must  be  adapted  to  the  experience  and  training  of  the  student. 
This  will  necessitate  careful  study  and  planning,  extended 
observation,  and  some  experimentation.  The  teacher  whose 
colleagues,  especially  in  the  same  field  of  study,  are  inter- 
ested in  problems  of  experiment  and  investigation,  can  natu- 
rally profit  greatly  from  conference  and  criticism.  The  prob- 
lem is  so  complex  and  many-sided  that  the  joint  product  of 
many  minds  is  presumably  better  than  that  of  one. 

The  real  value  of  these  educational  measurements  lies  in 
their  application  to  the  work  of  teaching.  The  forms  of  ap- 


296  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

plication  we  enumerated  early  in  the  chapter.  These  are 
(i)  the  determination  of  the  students'  present  educational 
status,  as  a  basis  of  comparison  with  their  status  at  an  earlier 
period,  or  with  the  work  of  other  groups;  (2)  the  experimental 
investigation  of  the  relative  merits  of  different  methods  of  in- 
struction, and  (3)  the  discovery  of  the  special  capacities  and 
needs  of  individuals.  Some  suggestion  on  the  method  of  util- 
izing the  tests  for  each  of  these  purposes  may  be  of  service. 

Determination  of  Class  Achievement. — In  the  first  of 
the  three  applications  mentioned,  where  the  ami  is  com- 
parison, the  prime  essential  is  uniformity  of  both  content  and 
conditions.  It  should  be  noted  that  in  the  standard  tests 
there  is  no  difference  in  content  for  the  various  ages  of  the 
pupils.  The  fourth  grader  and  the  eighth  grader  are  set 
exactly  the  same  problems,  and  the  grading  is  based  only 
upon  the  degree  of  excellence  of  the  performance.  For  the 
measuring  of  the  progress  made  by  a  class  during  a  semester 
of  study,  therefore,  it  is  essential  that  the  tests  given  at  the 
beginning  and  end  of  the  semester  represent  exactly  the  same 
content  and  difficulty,  and,  if  possible,  the  questions  should 
be  the  same  in  both  cases.  Identity  of  questions,  however, 
may  not  in  some  cases  represent  identity  in  test,  since  the 
practice  or  memory  from  the  first  may  render  the  second  easier. 
To  meet  this  difficulty,  the  Courtis  Tests  include  more  than 
one  set  of  questions,  representing  the  same  thought  processes, 
but  with  somewhat  different  details  of  content,  so  that  a 
student  would  naturally  earn  the  same  score  whichever  of 
the  alternative  test  questions  are  used. 

When  a  comparison  is  to  be  made  between  different 
classes  or  schools,  naturally  the  tests  should  be  made  iden- 
tical, although  in  their  formulation  care  should  be  taken  that 
the  questions  mean  the  same  for  all  the  groups  examined.  In 
the  high  school  even  more  than  the  grades  teachers  differ  in 
the  use  of  terms,  so  that  a  question  clear  enough  to  one  class 
may  be  puzzling  to  a  similar  class  under  another  instructor. 

The  conditions  for  conducting  the  tests  should  also  be 


STANDARDS   AND  MEASUREMENTS  IN   INSTRUCTION      297 

the  same.  Such  elements  as  fatigue,  strangeness  of  environ- 
ment, distraction  of  attention,  or  misconception  of  the  sig- 
nificance of  the  test  will  necessarily  affect  the  students'  per- 
formance. The  necessary  explanations  to  the  class  of  the 
method  of  procedure  and  meaning  of  the  questions  are  also 
liable  to  be  differently  given  by  different  examiners.  To 
secure  uniformity  in  these  points  it  is  essential  that  the  con- 
ditions of  the  different  tests  receive  careful  attention  and,  if 
convenient,  the  tests  should  be  conducted  by  a  single  ex- 
aminer. It  need  scarcely  be  added  that  the  system  of  scor- 
ing results  must  be  uniform  and  clearly  understood. 

Experimental  Evaluation  of  Methods  of  Instruction. — 
The  second  form  of  application  of  measurement  is  for  the 
comparing  of  different  methods  of  instruction  in  order  to 
determine  their  relative  merit.  Here,  too,  as  in  all  com- 
parison, uniformity  of  conditions  is  essential.  Pedagogically 
as  well  as  psychologically  comparison  involves  the  identity  of 
all  the  factors  in  the  things  compared,  save  the  one  factor 
which  is  being  investigated.  In  the  comparative  study  of 
methods  the  teacher  is  the  experimenter,  and  must  observe 
the  requirements  of  experimental  procedure.  A  study  made 
a  few  years  ago  in  the  University  of  Illinois  will  serve  as  an 
illustration.1  It  was  desired  to  determine  whether  zoology, 
when  taught  with  constant  reference  to  its  economic  applica- 
tions, would  not  lead  to  better  mastery  of  the  subject  than 
when  taught  with  the  usual  academic  interest  as  the  basis  of 
appeal.  In  order  to  secure  identity  of  conditions  the  class 
was  divided  into  two  sections,  on  a  basis  in  which  scholastic 
ability  and  interest  were  not  involved.  The  two  classes  were 
equal,  in  so  far  as  could  be  determined,  and  were  given  the 
same  instructor,  the  same  time,  and  the  same  conditions  of 
work.  Only  the  method  of  instruction  was  different,  in  that 
the  economic  applications  were  stressed  in  the  one  case,  and 
not  in  the  other.  At  the  end  of  the  course  the  examination 

1  Already  referred  to  on  p.  147.  For  a  description  of  the  experiment, 
see  article  in  the  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  vol.  I,  p.  321. 


298  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

questions  prepared  for  the  non-economic  section  were  made 
tiie  basis  for  testing  the  economic  sections  as  well,  since  it 
was  desired  to  find  out  whether  the  economic  treatment  would 
not  produce  a  better  knowledge  of  the  material  which  formed 
the  basis  of  the  non-economic  treatment. 

In  experimentation  of  this  kind  it  may  not  always  be 
possible  or  necessary  to  divide  classes  into  sections  for  com- 
parison. When  it  is  desired  to  employ  the  test  for  a  specific 
unit  of  subject  matter,  the  teacher  may  conduct  the  test  as 
a  comparison  of  classes  taught  in  successive  years.  Here, 
however,  he  must  be  careful  to  secure  as  great  similarity  of 
conditions  as  possible,  including  the  interests  and  ability  of 
the  classes  themselves,  and  for  reliability  of  conclusions  the 
teacher  should  not  depend  too  much  upon  his  memory,  but 
should  keep  a  faithful  and  detailed  record  of  procedure  and 
results.  This  process  of  comparison  may  involve  the  testing 
of  classes  for  several  years  before  final  conclusions  can  be 
drawn.  The  delay  is  not  fatal,  however,  and  the  chances  are 
that  in  the  course  of  the  testing  the  teacher  will  have  learned 
from  his  experimentation  many  unanticipated  lessons  of  value 
even  equal  to  that  of  the  test  itself,  due  to  the  closer  attention 
and  care  given  to  the  instruction. 

In  the  testing  of  methods  the  personal  factor  is  likely  to 
play  an  important  part.  Uniformity  of  procedure  in  a  test 
of  pupils'  ability  is  far  more  easy  to  secure  than  in  a  test  of 
methods  of  instruction,  for  in  the  latter  the  procedure  is  less 
exact  and  not  only  permits  but  demands  a  great  degree  of 
adaptation  to  the  pupils'  response.  The  element  of  enthu- 
siasm is  also  important.  It  is  not  easy  for  a  teacher  to  em- 
ploy two  different  methods  with  the  same  degree  of  confidence 
and  zeal.  The  one  he  has  always  employed  may  inspire  an 
attitude  of  confidence;  the  new  one  may  appeal  because  of 
its  freshness  and  promise.  Really,  the  comparison  must  be 
made  between  the  two  methods  with  each  at  its  best,  and  the 
teacher  must  inject  his  best  self  into  each.  It  is  because  of 
this  personal  element  in  teaching  that  comparisons  of  method 


STANDARDS   AND   MEASUREMENTS   IN   INSTRUCTION      2  99 

are  often  valid  for  the  experimenter  only,  although  of  sugges- 
tive value  to  others.  The  inference  naturally  follows  that  the 
progressive  teacher  will  be  both  an  observer  of  others'  experi- 
ments and  an  experimenter  for  himself. 

Discovery  of  Individual  Needs. — As  a  means  for  the  dis- 
covery of  students'  individual  capacities  and  needs,  the 
special  test  must  begin  where  the  regular  instruction  leaves  off. 
The  daily  work  of  the  classroom  is  the  first  and,  possibly,  the 
best  instrument  for  the  observation  of  individual  variations. 
Each  recitation,  each  written  exercise,  each  class  test  and  ex- 
amination should  serve  somewhat  to  disclose  to  the  teacher 
what  each  pupil  is  doing,  can  do,  and  should  do.  The  func- 
tion of  the  special  test  such  as  we  have  been  considering  is 
to  complete  the  observation  of  the  regular  instruction.  When 
the  class  work  gives  inadequate  returns,  the  teacher's  next 
problem  is  a  diagnosis  of  the  difficulty,  and  for  this  purpose 
special  tests  may  be  devised  and  employed.  Also,  the  giving 
of  standard  tests  to  whole  groups  or  classes  should  show  in  a 
more  specific  way  the  needs  of  individual  students.  Unfortu- 
nately recitation,  examination,  and  test  are  too  often  used 
solely  for  the  discovery  of  how  much  the  student  can  do, 
rather  than  what  he  can  do. 

The  test  for  the  discovery  of  individual  students'  needs  is 
thus  usually  the  group  test,  with  individual  variations  noted 
in  the  interpretation  of  results.  Even  when  individually  ad- 
ministered, the  test  is  not  essentially  different  in  character 
from  that  for  a  group.  There  is  needed,  therefore,  no  further 
consideration  of  form  or  method  than  that  already  given  for 
group  tests. 

Ultimate  Function  of  Testing. — The  measurement  of  stu- 
dent ability  serves  a  higher  purpose  than  merely  the  securing 
of  information.  In  each  of  the  aims  we  have  been  discussing 
the  information  secured  was  for  the  sake  of  improvement  of 
instruction.  The  measurement  of  students'  progress  should 
show  the  teacher  whether  his  class  is  really  making  the  ad- 
vancement which  might  reasonably  be  expected.  Time  and 


300  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

effort  expended  are  really  far  from  indicative  of  work  accom- 
plished. The  fact  that  a  class  have  worked  faithfully  for  a 
year  on  ancient  history  is  no  proof  that  they  have  done  a 
year's  work,  and  many  a  teacher  would  be  greatly  disappointed 
were  he  to  know  how  little  had  really  been  accomplished  in 
his  class.  The  test,  whatever  its  form,  should  serve  to  show 
just  wherein  his  work  is  succeeding,  wherein  it  needs  recon- 
struction, and  possibly  will  suggest  the  character  of  such  re- 
construction or  of  some  experimental  investigation  for  the 
discovery  of  better  method.  Kinds  of  error,  therefore,  and 
not  scores  alone  should  be  scrutinized  in  testing. 

As  a  basis  for  the  comparison  of  work  between  groups  or 
schools,  the  standard  test,  and  even  the  improvised  test,  should 
assist  the  teacher  in  determining  whether  his  class  is  making 
the  progress  that  might  reasonably  be  expected.  In  some  of 
the  elementary  subjects  what  might  be  called  minimal  stand- 
ards have  been  formulated,  by  averaging  the  scores  of  large 
numbers  of  children  in  various  schools  through  such  tests  as 
the  Courtis  Tests,  by  a  consensus  of  opinion  on  the  part  of 
educators  and  educated,  by  a  study  of  the  demands  upon 
knowledge  made  by  the  experience  of  adult  life,  and  in  other 
ways.1  In  so  far  as  these  deal  with  subjects  taught  in  the 
high  school,  they  may  with  great  profit  be  made  the  basis  of 
comparison  by  the  teacher  for  the  checking  up  of  his  own 
work  and  the  discovery  of  shortcomings.  Where  such  stand- 
ards have  not  yet  been  determined,  and  this  includes  prac- 
tically all  of  high  school  work,  improvised  tests  such  as  have 
been  mentioned  before  may  be  of  service  in  the  formulation 
of  provisional  or  working  standards.  While  the  inferences 
resulting  from  the  employment  of  such  tests  may  not  be  con- 
clusive, the  teacher  can  make  them  stimulating  and  sugges- 
tive in  his  quest  for  weaknesses  in  his  method.  The  teacher 
whose  classes  make  a  poor  showing  can  at  least  investigate 
the  methods  of  the  teacher  whose  showing  is  better.  Com- 

1  Cf.  "  Fourteenth  and  Sixteenth  Year  Books  of  the  National  Society 
for  the  Study  of  Education." 


STANDARDS  AND  MEASUREMENTS  IN  INSTRUCTION      301 

parison  of  results  leading  to  comparison  of  methods  is  essential 
to  professional  advancement,  and  might  with  profit  displace 
much  of  the  content  of  the  typical  teachers'  institute  and 
association  meeting. 

We  have  said  that  the  results  of  these  tests,  even  of  those 
most  generally  accredited,  are  not  necessarily  conclusive. 
The  teacher  must  not  let  his  success  in  meeting  the  standard 
blind  him  to  the  fact  that  the  standards  are  as  yet  not  fully 
established,  nor  do  they  cover  all  of  the  educational  aims. 
He  should  take  them  for  what  they  are,  and  participate  in 
the  work  of  their  improvement.  He  should  realize  that  for 
some  of  the  most  important  educational  aims  no  test  has  yet 
been  devised,  and  that  success  in  the  measurable  features 
may  have  resulted  from  formal  drill  at  the  cost  of  thought 
and  feeling.  He  must,  in  other  words,  be  a  student  of  edu- 
cational aims,  and  a  critic  of  educational  tests  in  the  light  of 
these  aims. 

The  employment  of  the  results  of  measurement  in  dealing 
with  individual  variations  and  needs  requires  no  further  con- 
sideration. The  discussion  of  individual  instruction  in 
Chapter  XV  will,  we  trust,  suggest  to  the  reader  how  the 
work  of  instruction  may  take  account  of  individual  variations 
and  needs. 

The  Grading  of  Pupils. — In  the  preceding  section  atten- 
tion was  called  to  the  inadequacy  of  any  attempt  at  absolute 
grading  of  students'  attainments  for  a  year  or  term.  In  place 
of  the  percentage  basis  of  ranking,  recourse  was  had  to  the 
rating  of  students  by  their  relative  attainments  in  the  group, 
and  a  system  of  grading  was  proposed  based  upon  the  normal 
distribution  of  abilities  in  a  typical  class.  Objection  was 
made,  however,  that  not  all  classes  are  typical,  and  that  vari- 
ous influences  may  work  to  interfere  with  the  proposed 
distribution  of  grades.  With  the  percentage  system  of 
grading  discredited,  and  the  grade  distribution  found  to  be 
limited  in  its  use,  the  teacher  justly  asks  for  ly^fl&iitfbVg" 

STATE  TEACHER'S  COLLEGE 
SA..TA  BARBARA,  CALIFORNIA 


302  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

With  the  large  class,  the  system  of  grade  distribution  is 
applicable,  and  is  proving  its  merit.  Whether  the  division 
be  one  of  five  groups  or  ranks,  as  in  the  illustration,  or  of 
more  or  less,  is  not  vital  so  long  as  the  relative  size  of  the 
groups  is  in  harmony  with  the  law  of  the  normal  distribution 
of  abilities.  That  more  than  six  groups  would  needlessly  in- 
crease the  nicety  of  discrimination  is  evident.  On  the  other 
hand,  less  than  four  groups  would  throw  into  one  class  indi- 
viduals of  such  wide  difference  of  merit  as  to  largely  nullify 
the  aim  of  the  grading.  Practical  experience  points  to  the 
five-level  grouping  as  the  most  satisfactory. 

With  the  small  class  the  problem  is  less  simple.  Not 
merely  does  the  smallness  of  the  class  preclude  a  group  divi- 
sion in  the  proportion  advocated,  but  its  smallness  raises  the 
presumption  that  some  special  influence  is  affecting  the  size 
of  1'ie  class,  and  hence  rendering  it  non-typical.  In  such  case 
the  teacher  has  recourse  to  two  methods  of  grading  which 
will  tend  toward  reasonably  accurate  results,  especially  if 
used  jointly.  In  the  first  place,  he  may  regard  all  his  pupils 
of  several  successive  classes  in  the  subject  as  constituting  one 
large  class,  and  then  test  the  grades  assigned  in  them  to  see 
if  their  distribution  has  corresponded  to  that  accepted  as  the 
standard. 

The  second  procedure  is  more  complicated,  but  yields 
more  immediate  results,  and  in  the  case  of  small  classes  has 
been  found  quite  practicable.  Here  the  teacher  associates 
with  each  grade  or  letter  the  quality  of  work  which  he  thinks 
it  should  represent,  and  assigns  the  grades  to  the  students 
accordingly.  In  so  doing,  however,  he  must  take  account  of 
the  normal  size  of  each  group;  that  the  division  is  into  not 
equal  but  very  unequal  groups,  with  the  middle  group  very 
much  the  largest.  His  next  step  is  to  check  up  his  standard 
of  evaluation,  and  for  the  purpose  uses  the  grades  assigned 
the  same  students  by  instructors  in  other  subjects.  If  com- 
parison shows,  on  the  whole,  a  close  similarity  between  his  own 
grades  and  the  average  of  those  given  the  same  student  by 


STANDARDS   AND   MEASUREMENTS   IN   INSTRUCTION      303 

other  instructors,  the  comparison  being  made  for  each  stu- 
dent rather  than  for  the  average  of  all  students,  it  is  reason- 
able to  infer  that  his  grading  is,  on  the  whole,  neither  too 
lenient  nor  too  severe.  He  should  further  observe  the  dis- 
tribution of  his  grades.  Let  us  suppose  that  a  student  re- 
ceives the  following  grades:  Latin,  B;  history,  A;  mathe- 
matics, B;  English,  C.  Since  his  average  is  B,  we  might 
call  his  history  grade  a  relatively  high  grade,  and  his  English 
grade  a  low  one.  It  is  evident  that  a  teacher  who  in  the  long 
run  shows  a  marked  tendency  to  give  many  such  relatively 
high  or  low  grades  has  an  inadequate  conception  of  what 
should  be  expected  of  students.  The  relation  may  possibly 
be  better  understood  if  expressed  thus:  Too  many  low  grades 
implies  too  high  a  standard  for  "poor";  the  teacher  is  calling 
work  poor  which  is  of  fair  quality.  Too  few  low  grades  im- 
plies too  low  a  standard  for  "poor";  the  teacher  is  calling 
work  fair  which  is  of  poor  quality.  Too  many  high  grades 
implies  too  low  a  standard  for  "good";  the  teacher  is  calling 
work  good  which  is  of  fair  quality.  Too  few  high  grades  im- 
plies too  high  a  standard  for  "good";  the  teacher  is  calling 
work  fair  which  is  of  good  quality.  A  combination  of  too 
few  low  grades  and  too  few  high  grades  implies  a  disposition 
to  use  the  medium  grade  as  a  catch-all  for  cases  of  whose 
evaluation  he  is  in  doubt.  A  combination  of  too  many  low 
grades  and  too  many  high  grades  implies  a  tendency  toward 
extreme  judgments,  regarding  as  very  good  what  appeals  to 
him  favorably,  and  as  very  poor  whatever  is  not  well  up  to 
the  average. 

The  fundamental  principle  in  the  above  is,  of  course,  the 
superiority  of  the  judgment  of  many  teachers  over  that  of 
one.  The  objection  will  doubtless  be  raised  that  students 
vary  greatly  in  the  quality  of  work  done  in  different  subjects, 
doing  better  in  subjects  which  interest  them,  or  in  which  the 
instructor  is  more  insistent  on  creditable  work.  That  such 
tendency  exists  is  unquestionable;  that  there  is  really  less  of 
it  in  a  well-administered  school  than  is  often  imagined  can 


304  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

be  seen  by  a  study  of  students'  grades.1  The  reply  to  the 
objection  is  that  there  are  as  many  upward  as  downward 
variations  of  this  sort,  thus  tending  to  offset  each  other,  and 
especially  that  only  well-defined  and  obvious  tendencies  are 
considered.  The  seeming  complexity  of  the  system  is  largely 
removed  by  an  understanding  of  the  principle  which  deter- 
mines the  inference. 

An  annual  or  semi-annual  comparison  of  grades  by  the 
system  just  described,  especially  when  checked  up  by  a  grade 
distribution  jointly  for  several  successive  classes,  will  furnish 
the  instructor  with  a  reasonably  accurate  analysis  of  the 
character  and  degree  of  his  errors  in  the  grading  of  students' 
work.  At  its  best  the  system  is  subject  to  several  errors  of 
method;  but  at  its  worst  it  gives  much  needed  and  service- 
able results,  and  is  probably  the  best  that  has  been  devised 
for  small  classes. 

It  not  infrequently  happens  that  a  teacher,  in  distributing 
his  grades  according  to  the  principle  we  have  discussed,  can- 
not avoid  the  conviction  that  a  real  injustice  is  being  done 
thereby.  In  other  words,  he  feels  that  for  the  class  in  ques- 
tion the  graph  of  the  grades  should  not  follow  the  normal 
form,  but  should  indicate  a  variation  similar  to  that  of  the 
non-typical  groups  of  our  foot-race  illustration.2  Such  a 
conviction  should  be  followed  up  by  a  discovery  of  the  influ- 
ences which  cause  the  variation  (known  to  statisticians  as 
the  "skew"  in  the  graph).  Possibly  a  lack  of  adequate  train- 
ing before  entering  the  class,  an  attitude  of  indifference,  or  a 
lack  of  clarity  in  the  instruction  may  have  caused  a  consid- 
erable number  of  the  students  to  do  work  inferior  to  that 
which  their  natural  ability  would  ordinarily  produce.  Such 
influences  would  result  in  an  excessive  proportion  of  poor 
students,  giving  the  graph  a  skew  to  the  left,  as  in  Figure  5. 

1  Cf,  doctorate  dissertation  by  D.  E.  Weglein  on  "The  Correlation 
Between  the  High  School  Student's  Grades"  (1916).    Also,  "Correlation 
Among  Abilities  in  School  Studies,"  by  D.  Starch,  in  Journal  of  Educa- 
tional Psychology,  vol.  IV,  p.  415. 

2  Cf.  p.  290. 


STANDARDS  AND  MEASUREMENTS  IN  INSTRUCTION      305 


FIGURE  5. — Graph  of  class  with  many  poor  students 

If  the  condition  is  extreme,  it  may  even  cause  a  cleavage 
of  the  class  into  widely  divergent  groups,  with  a  graph  as  in 
Figure  6. 


FIGURE  6. — Graph  of  a  class  with  a  considerable  number  of  very  poor 
students,  the  rest  being  of  normal  ability 

On  the  other  hand,  a  preponderance  of  high  grades,  giv- 
ing the  graph  a  skew  to  the  right,  might  indicate  that  in  some 
way  the  class  represented  a  select  membership,  due  to  the 
weaker  pupils  having  in  some  way  been  eliminated  before 
entering  the  class.  It  might  also  be  traced  to  unusually 
skilful  instruction,  whereby  students  are  inspired  to  excep- 
tional zeal.  Unfortunately,  the  explanation  most  often  to 
be  found  is  a  leniency  in  grading. 

Thus  the  use  of  relative  evaluation  of  student  achieve- 
ments, grading  them  according  to  their  rank  in  the  class, 
may  prove  helpful  by  pointing  out  the  presence  of  abnormal 
or  undesirable  influences  upon  the  work  of  the  class.  It 
seems  superfluous  to  add  that  it  is  the  business  of  the  teacher 
to  study  and  interpret  his  grades,  to  trace  out  the  influences 
which  are  affecting  the  work  of  the  class,  and  to  strive  to 
improve  his  instruction  by  the  elimination  of  the  negative, 
the  cultivation  of  the  positive,  influences. 


306  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

5.    SUMMARY 

Teaching  efficiency  demands  that  the  present  self-con- 
fident non-critical  procedure  shall  give  place  to  a  thorough 
testing  of  instruction  by  a  measurement  of  its  products.  A 
system  of  standardization  and  measurement  would  facilitate 
the  measuring  of  students'  progress,  the  comparison  of  the 
work  of  different  classes  or  schools,  the  experimental  investi- 
gation of  the  relative  merits  of  different  methods  of  teaching, 
and  the  discovery  of  individual  needs  and  differences. 

The  essentials  of  an  educational  standard  are  five:  objec- 
tivity, definiteness,  absoluteness,  inclusiveness,  and  practica- 
bility. Only  that  can  be  accurately  measured  which  admits 
of  an  applicable  standard,  and  in  which  the  characteristic  to 
be  studied  is  actually  knowable,  and  its  zero  degree  can  be 
determined.  The  degree  to  which  measurement  can  be  ap- 
plied to  knowledge,  thought  power,  appreciation,  efficiency, 
and  permanency  varies  greatly  in  the  different  cases,  due  in 
part  to  the  impossibility  of  their  isolation  for  study. 

There  are  in  practice  two  types  of  measurement:  that 
with  exact  measurement  based  upon  an  absolute  standard, 
and  that  with  relative  evaluations,  based  upon  the  com- 
parative ranking  of  the  individual  in  a  group.  Of  the  first 
type  are  such  as  the  Thorndike  Scale  in  handwriting,  the 
HUlegas  Scale  in  English  composition,  and  the  Courtis  Tests. 
The  second  type  includes  the  distribution  of  grades  accord- 
ing to  the  law  of  distribution  of  abilities.  The  latter  plan 
insures  a  more  just  and  objective  basis  for  evaluation,  but  is 
strictly  valid  only  with  normal  groups. 

The  standard  tests  already  devised  should  prove  of  value 
to  the  secondary  school  teacher  as  suggestive  of  methods  of 
investigation  of  his  own.  Testing  for  any  of  the  products  of 
instruction,  he  must  endeavor  to  isolate  the  factor  investi- 
gated. In  comparative  measurements  the  form  and  condi- 
tions of  the  test  must  be  clear  and  uniform.  The  results  of 
the  measurements  should  show  the  character  and  needs  of 


STANDARDS   AND   MEASUREMENTS   IN   INSTRUCTION      307 

the  instruction  being  offered,  and  should  suggest  the  form  of 
its  improvement.  In  the  case  of  the  distribution  of  students' 
grades  where  the  classes  are  small,  comparison  should  be 
made  with  the  grades  of  other  instructors  to  disclose  ten- 
dencies toward  misjudgment  of  values,  and  the  grades  of 
several  consecutive  years  should  correspond  to  the  general 
principle  of  grade  distribution.  Tendencies  of  classes  to  de- 
viate from  the  normal  distribution  of  abilities  should  lead  the 
teacher  to  the  discovery  and  correction  of  any  unfortunate 
influences  causing  such  deviation. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

1.  Some  teachers  object  strongly  to  the  application  of  the  princi- 
ple of  standardization  in  teaching.     Suggest  reasons  (sound  and  un- 
sound) for  such  objection. 

2.  Discuss  the  advisability  and  methods  of  having  pupils  keep 
records  and  graphs  of  their  own  achievements. 

3.  Find  out  what  you  can  of  each  of  the  tests  suggested,  and  dis- 
cuss the  degree  to  which  they  meet  the  five  requirements  of  a  good 
measurement  scale. 

4.  Of  the  five  instruction  aims,  which  are  measured  by  each  of 
the  tests  described?     In  each  of  the  tests,  what  instruction  aims  are 
ignored  or  slighted  which  you  consider  fundamental  in  the  subject 
in  question? 

5.  In  each  of  the  following  studies,  for  what  educational  products 
would  you  undertake  to  measure,  were  you  to  devise  tests  for  those 
studies:    civics?  Latin  or  Spanish  prose  composition?  manual  train- 
ing? English  literature?  botany?     Selecting  one  of  these  studies,  tell 
how  you  would  go  about  the  formulation  of  a  test  for  it.'    If  you  think 
any  of  them  incapable  of  measurement,  justify  your  position. 

6.  A  class  of  about  thirty  pupils  had  a  normal  distribution  in  its 
membership.     To  it  there  were  added  about  twelve  pupils,  who  were 
the  best  members  from  another  class  of  about  thirty-six  pupila  in  the 
same  work,  and  also  of  normal  distribution.    Plot  a  graph  which  might 
represent  the  distribution  in  the  resultant  class. 

7.  The  following  grades  were  given  in  a  certain  (hypothetical) 
high  school.     For  convenience  of  study  it  is  assumed  that  there  are 
eight  instructors  and  twenty  pupils,  and  that  each  pupil  carries  five 
studies.     Criticise  the  grades  of  each  instructor,  from  each  of  the 


3o8 


PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 


points  of  view  treated  in  the  text.     A,  B,  C,  and  D  are  "passing 
grades." 


PUPIL 

INSTRUCTOR 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

English  

...     B 

C 

B 
C 

D 
A 

B 
C 

A 
C 

C 

B 
C 
B 

A 
C 

C 

A 

A 
B 

B 

C 

C 
B 

C 
B 

D 

B 

C 
B 
A 

C 
B 
C 

D 

B 
B 

F 
C 
D 
B 

A 
C 

A 
B 
A 

Mathematics  

C 

Latin  

...     A 

Spanish  

History  

...     F 

Physical  Science  

...     C 

Biological  Science  

Agriculture  

INSTRUCTOR 

ii 

12 

13 

H 

15 

16 

i? 

18 

19 

20 

English  

...     B 

C 
A 
F 

C 

A 

C 

F 

C 
C 

B 

B 
C 
C 

D 
B 

F 

D 
B 
A 
B 

D 

C 
A 
C 

C 

D 

C 

B 
C 

B 

C 

B 
C 

B 
B 

D 

B 

B 
F 

B 

D 
B 

C 

D 
B 

Mathematics  

...     B 

Latin  

...     B 

Spanish  

History  

...     D 

Physical  Science  

Biological  Science.  . 

...     C 

Agriculture  

SUPPLEMENTARY  READINGS 

Birch,  "Standard  Tests  and  Scales  of  Measurement,"  in  Psychological 

Clinic,  April  15,  1916. 

Parker,  "Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools,"  chap.  XXII. 
Dearborn,  "The  Misuse  of  Standard  Tests  in  Education,"  in  School 

and  Society,  April  i,  1916. 

Starch,  "Educational  Measurements,"  especially  chap.  III. 
Starch,  "Educational  Psychology,"  chap.  XXII. 
Monroe,  DeVoss,  and  Kelly,  "Educational  Tests  and  Measurements," 

chap.  VII. 


CHAPTER  XV 

INDIVIDUAL  AND   SOCIAL  ELEMENTS  IN 
SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION 

i.    INDIVIDUAL  INSTRUCTION 

Meaning. — With  the  introduction  of  class  instruction  in 
the  schools,  there  came  the  impression  that  individual  in- 
struction was  thereby  excluded.  Class  teaching  came  to  be 
regarded  as  mass  teaching,  and  the  expression  "lock-step  in 
education"  has  been  coined  to  describe  the  procedure  in 
which  the  individual  is  submerged  in  the  whole.  To-day  we 
are  coming  to  see  that  individual  instruction  is  not  at  all  an- 
tagonistic to  class  instruction,  for  the  two  may  be  harmoni- 
ously employed  in  the  same  activity.  Instruction  is  individual 
when  it  is  specifically  intended  for  and  adapted  to  indi- 
vidual students,  even  though  two  or  twenty  individuals  are 
being  thus  instructed  simultaneously.  Moreover,  the  differ- 
ence in  needs  between  different  students,  although  real,  is 
actually  not  as  wide  as  is  sometimes  supposed,  and  the  ex- 
perienced teacher  well  knows  that  rarely  indeed  does  the 
treatment  of  difficulties  raised  by  individuals  fail  to  assist 
other  members  of  the  class.  Efficiency  in  instruction,  as 
elsewhere,  requires  that  effort  expended  shall  serve  as  wide  a 
group  as  possible,  and  the  teacher  should  seek  to  utilize  the 
assistance  rendered  an  individual,  so  that  similar  difficulties 
on  the  part  of  other  students  may  thereby  be  brought  to  con- 
sciousness and  solution.  Individuality  in  instruction  is  thus 
a  matter  of  spirit  and  character  rather  than  of  form. 

The  basis  for  individual  instruction  is  naturally  to  be 
found  in  the  differences  between  the  individuals  to  be  taught; 
and  upon  the  recognition  of  individual  differences  of  students, 

309 


310  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

whether  hereditary  or  due  to  environment,  depends  largely 
the  development  of  personality  through  the  work  of  the 
school.  The  attention  accorded  to-day  to  vocational  guidance 
is  but  one  form  of  this  recognition  in  a  particular  sphere,  and 
the  part  played  by  individual  differences  in  the  entire  educa- 
tional activity  demands  that  they  be  given  a  large  place  in 
teaching. 

Environmental  Differences. — Differences  due  to  environ- 
ment may  be  taken  to  include  those  resulting  from  the  entire 
experience  and  training  of  the  child  from  his  earliest  years. 
Naturally  these  tend  to  color  all  his  learning  and  feeling. 
His  imagery,  his  conception,  his  application  of  principles,  his 
appreciation,  and  even  his  reason  will  be  largely  determined 
by  them.  In  Chapter  VI  it  was  pointed  out  that  one  of  the 
functions  of  the  recitation  mode  of  instruction  is  to  secure  a 
certain  degree  of  agreement  in  the  apperceptive  mass  of  the 
various  members  of  the  class,  in  order  that  the  development 
of  the  new  lesson  may  have  a  definite  basis  upon  which  to 
build.  This  was  but  another  way  of  saying  that  the  indi- 
vidual differences  due  to  environment  should  be  so  far  re- 
duced as  to  facilitate  the  work  of  instruction.  However,  this 
must  by  all  means  be  interpreted  not  as  a  levelling-down  proc- 
ess but  as  a  levelling-up.  The  phases  of  experience  upon 
which  the  new  material  is  to  be  developed  must  in  practically 
all  cases  be  supplemented  and  corrected,  through  the  medium 
of  class  discussion  incident  to  the  recitation  procedure. 

However,  it  is  to  the  positive  rather  than  the  negative 
treatment  of  differences  that  the  attention  of  the  teacher 
most  needs  to  be  drawn.  Because  no  two  environments  are 
identical,  and  no  two  persons  similarly  disposed  toward  en- 
vironment, the  experience  of  each  child  contains  elements 
which  others  lack,  and  which  may  be  utilized  as  his  personal 
contribution  to  the  work  of  the  classroom.  The  writer  once 
visited,  at  Tuskegee  Institute,  a  class  exercise  in  which  each 
individual  student  reported  to  the  class  upon  something 
which  he  had  investigated  in  the  learning  of  his  trade.  One 


INDIVIDUAL  AND    SOCIAL  ELEMENTS  311 

told  how  he  had  secured  by  selective  cultivation  a  profitable 
variety  of  corn,  another  reported  upon  his  manufacture  of  an 
anvil,  a  third  upon  her  learning  of  the  trimming  of  hats.  In  a 
similar  way,  though  with  different  content,  the  geometry  stu- 
dent in  the  high  school  may  report  upon  a  new  demonstra- 
tion, the  student  in  history  may  tell  of  some  book  throwing 
light  upon  the  problem  under  discussion,  and  the  literature 
student  may  contribute  his  personal  interpretation  of  a  stanza 
or  paragraph.  Apart  from  the  social  value  from  such  contri- 
butions by  the  pupil,  there  is  a  real  profit  in  the  develop- 
ment of  individual  capacity  through  the  recognition  and  use 
of  his  particular  experience.  The  value  appears  less  in  the 
material  contributed  than  in  the  encouragement  and  training 
resulting  from  its  recognition  and  employment. 

Hereditary  Differences. — Individual  differences  due  mainly 
to  heredity,  though  fundamentally  related  to  those  of  envi- 
ronment, demand  a  very  different  treatment  because  they  are 
so  deeply  ingrained  in  the  child's  nature,  and  are  accordingly 
but  slightly  alterable.  Their  investigation  is  one  of  the 
most  recent  of  psychological  problems,  and  much  remains  to 
be  done  before  our  knowledge  of  psychical  fact  can  function 
largely  in  educational  procedure.  Hereditary  differences  may, 
perhaps,  be  best  classified  on  the  basis  of  the  three  traditional 
forms  of  mental  activity,  as  differences  of  intellect,  of  feeling, 
and  of  will,  or  following  Professor  Thorndike's  more  conve- 
nient terms,  as  differences  of  thought,  of  temperament,  and  of 
action.  Of  what  character  and  degree  are  these  differences, 
and  how  shall  they  affect  the  work  of  the  instructor?  Pro- 
fessor Thorndike  has  undoubtedly  given  us  the  best  general 
treatment  of  the  subject,  and  we  may  well  look  to  him  for  our 
psychological  data  as  well  as  for  some  of  their  educational 
implications.1 

On  the  basis  of  intellectual  or  thought  differences,  we 
might  regard  students  as  of  two  main  types,  which  Professor 
Thorndike  calls  the  thing-thinker  and  the  idea-thinker.  The 

1  Thorndike,  "Principles  of  Teaching,"  chap.  VI. 


312  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

teacher  must  see  that  for  the  former  the  idea  is  connected  with 
the  thing,  for  the  other  the  thing  must  be  associated  with  the 
idea.  The  student  who  tends  to  think  only  of  the  piece  of 
apparatus  in  physics,  the  persons  and  events  in  history,  the 
particular  verb  in  French,  the  given  triangle  in  geometry, 
should  be  led  inseparably  to  associate  with  each  its  meaning 
or  idea,  the  principle  back  of  the  apparatus,  the  persons  and 
events,  the  verb,  or  the  triangle.  For  the  idea-minded  stu- 
dent care  must  be  exercised  that  the  learning  does  not  be- 
come mere  abstraction,  but  that  content  and  application  of 
the  principles  are  closely  bound  to  the  idea  itself.  Because 
both  types  occur  in  the  high  school  class,  both  idea  and  thing 
must  be  clearly  and  fully  treated.  The  procedure  earlier 
studied  under  the  problematic  mode,  from  concrete  through 
abstract  to  concrete  again,  provides  opportunity  for  the 
training  of  the  whole  class,  though  the  distribution  of  em- 
phasis for  the  individual  members  of  the  class  varies  with 
their  needs,  and  the  teacher  must  be  watchful  that  neither  of 
the  types  is  neglected  in  the  instruction.  If  the  whole  move- 
ment be  conceived  of  by  the  student  as  one  circle  of  thought, 
a  unit  hi  which  both  concrete  and  abstract  are  united,  the 
danger  of  individuals  being  slighted  because  of  the  diversity 
of  types  will  be  greatly  reduced.  On  the  other  hand,  any  at- 
tempt to  materially  alter  the  thought-type  of  a  student  by 
high  school  instruction  is  foredoomed  to  failure,  if,  as  we  as- 
sume, the  basis  of  the  differences  is  laid  in  heredity,  and 
their  form  has  already  become  largely  established  in  the 
years  of  earlier  childhood.  Instead,  we  must  realize  that  they 
are  fundamental  in  determining  his  life-work,  and  the  par- 
ticular trait  or  talent  may,  by  training,  be  made  a  valuable 
asset  in  his  equipment.  Thus  the  thing-thinker  may  be 
enabled  to  picture  a  machine  or  an  event  with  such  vividness 
as  to  derive  added  meaning  from  it,  and  perhaps  portray  it 
more  vividly  to  his  classmates.  The  idea-thinker  may  de- 
velop a  most  valuable  capacity  for  abstract  thought  in  intel- 
lectual fields.  Such  abilities  may  well  be  trained  by  a  suitable 


INDIVIDUAL  AND   SOCIAL  ELEMENTS  313 

distribution  of  individual  problems,  exercises,  and  reports  in 
the  class  exercise  and  assignment. 

With  the  differences  in  temperament  instruction  can 
concern  itself  much  less  than  with  intellectual  differences. 
They  are  for  the  teacher  more  a  matter  of  discipline  than  of 
instruction,  and  can  be  but  little  affected  by  the  latter. 
Adopting  Thorndike's  classification  of  them,  on  the  basis  of 
speed,  vigor,  and  range,  one  might  say  that  the  ideal  tem- 
perament is  that  which  combines  all  three  elements,  being 
quick,  strong,  and  broad,  for  each  of  the  qualities  is  desirable 
when  combined  with  the  other  two.  Extremes  of  tempera- 
ment are  merely  wide  variations  of  degree  of  these  qualities 
in  an  individual,  combining  strength  in  one  quality  with 
weakness  in  another,  and  the  instruction  should  seek  to 
strengthen  the  weaker  quality.  The  slow  should  be  stimu- 
lated, the  weak  invigorated,  the  narrow  broadened.  Further, 
the  teacher  should  aim  to  unite  strongly  the  feeling  element, 
as  the  basis  of  temperament,  with  both  thought  and  action, 
so  that  the  individual's  feelings  will  accord  with  his  best 
thought,  and  he  will  neither  feel  without  appropriate  action 
nor  act  except  in  accord  with  a  rational  impulse.  Instruction 
must  rationalize  feeling,  must  train  the  rationalized  feeling  to 
express  itself  in  action,  and  must  inhibit  a  tendency  to  act 
before  the  implications  of  action  are  duly  considered.  Of  the 
five  modes  of  instruction,  probably  the  appreciation  mode 
offers  the  best  opportunity  for  the  training  of  disposition,  be- 
cause of  the  predominance  in  it  of  the  feeling  element.  The 
constant  expression  of  emotional  or  sentimental  attitude  both 
of  student  and  of  writer,  offers  exceptional  opportunity  for 
comparison  and  evaluation  of  motive,  and  reinforces  the  better 
impulses  with  the  backing  of  social  approval.  Further,  the 
content  studied  provides  constant  occasion  for  arousing  mo- 
tives, and  their  expression  in  the  critical  discussion  of  the 
class  exercise  serves  to  a  considerable  degree  as  their  idealized 
application. 

Individual  differences  of  will  or  of  action  can  best  be 


314  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

thought  of  as  giving  us  two  types,  the  impulsive  or  impetuous 
will,  and  the  deliberative  or  reasonable  will.  The  difference 
is  really  one  of  degree  rather  than  of  kind,  with  a  variation 
from  the  type  in  which  the  individual  acts  without  first  stop- 
ping to  think,  to  the  type  in  which  the  deliberation  is  unduly 
prolonged,  and  leads  to  no  choice  of  action.  Evidently,  as 
in  all  variations  due  to  lack  of  balance  between  two  opposite 
tendencies,  neither  of  which  is  intrinsically  bad,  the  teacher 
must  aim  at  the  strengthening  of  the  weaker  tendency,  and 
the  temporary  inhibition  of  the  stronger  until  the  weaker  has 
tune  to  act.  Doubtless  the  differences  of  action  type  are  due 
far  less  to  heredity  and  far  more  to  habit  than  is  commonly 
supposed.  Frequently,  too,  the  extremes  of  action  type  are 
in  part  traceable  to  a  lack  of  intellectual  perspective,  a  failure 
to  properly  evaluate  the  considerations  which  determine  or 
should  determine  the  course  of  action.  Because  habit  and 
judgment  thus  play  a  large  part  in  the  situation,  the  efficacy 
of  will  training  is  greater  than  in  the  case  of  temperamental, 
perhaps  of  intellectual  differences. 

Instruction  with  a  view  to  the  establishment  of  a  right 
balance  between  deliberation  and  impulse  should  strive  for 
three  things:  first,  the  habit  of  inhibiting  an  impulse  until 
deliberation  is  possible;  second,  the  proper  perspective  of  the 
considerations  confronting  one  and  the  ability  to  choose  ra- 
tionally after  suitable  deliberation;  third,  the  habit  of  re- 
acting rightly  when  typical  situations  confront  one,  and  the 
consequent  tendency  to  respond  similarly  when  confronted 
by  other  situations  recognized  as  similar.  Opportunity  for 
such  training  is  abundant  in  all  modes  of  instruction,  es- 
pecially the  problematic  and  appreciation,  since  these  two 
more  than  the  others  involve  the  students'  response  to  new 
situations.  Attention  to  the  student's  answers  to  questions 
should,  as  suggested  in  the  chapter  on  The  Question,  demand 
matured  answers,  really  expressing  the  best  thought  of  the 
student.  Hastiness  in  answering,  on  the  one  hand,  and  a 
reluctance  to  suggest  a  positive  answer,  on  the  other,  are  rep- 


INDIVIDUAL   AND   SOCIAL   ELEMENTS  315 

resentative  of  the  two  types  of  action,  and  the  treatment 
earlier  suggested  for  such  answers  is  the  basis  for  that  of  the 
two  extremes  of  impulsiveness  and  extreme  deliberation  re- 
spectively in  so  far  as  high  school  instruction  is  concerned. 
For  the  initiation  of  the  habit  sought  it  is  often  necessary  to 
reinforce  the  new  habit  by  means  of  a  somewhat  severe 
stimulus.  For  example,  in  the  case  of  the  impulsive  type, 
hasty  action  should  be  followed  by  unpleasant  consequences, 
immediate  enough  and  long  enough  continued  to  insure  their 
certain  and  prompt  functioning  before  the  impulse  can  be 
acted  upon  when  the  occasion  again  arises.  In  the  case  of 
the  deliberative  type  it  is  well  to  compel  immediate  re- 
sponses to  situations,  yet  not  relieving  the  individual  from 
the  responsibility  for  the  results  of  his  action,  for  irresponsible 
haste  would  be  either  ineffectual  or  harmful  in  its  results. 

The  Teacher's  Attitude  Toward  Individual  Differences. — 
Our  study  of  the  treatment  of  individual  differences  raises 
the  question  of  the  instructor's  general  attitude  toward  such 
differences,  and  has  implicitly  suggested  the  answer.  Shall 
the  attitude  be  a  positive  or  a  negative  one?  Shall  he  en- 
courage or  discourage  differences?  The  answers  given  in  the 
various  cases  above  may  be  generalized  in  a  comparatively 
simple  principle.  Determine  whether  the  trait  in  question  can 
be  of  service  to  the  individual  in  life,  and,  if  so,  what  degree 
of  it  will  be  of  most  service.  If  its  value  is  negative,  reinforce 
the  impulse  or  capacity  which  will  restrain  it.  If  positive, 
facilitate  its  development  to  its  proper  degree.  If  there  is 
danger  of  excess,  reinforce  the  opposing  impulse  or  capacity  to 
establish  a  proper  balance  between  the  two.  Thus  the  utiliza- 
tion of  forces  already  present  rather  than  the  suppression  of 
undesired  ones  or  the  creation  of  new,  the  rationalization  of 
these  forces  by  intellectual  training,  and  their  establishment 
in  the  form  of  correct  habits  are  the  three  principles  which  in 
the  treatment  of  individual  differences  must  control  instruc- 
tion. Quoting  from  Professor  Thorndike:  "The  one  thing 
that  educational  theorists  of  to-day  seem  to  place  as  the  fore- 


316  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

most  duty  of  the  schools — the  development  of  powers  and 
capacities — is  the  one  thing  that  the  schools  or  any  other  edu- 
cational forces  can  do  least.  The  one  thing  that  they  can  do 
best  is  to  establish  those  particular  connections  with  ideas 
which  we  call  knowledge  and  those  particular  connections  with 
acts  which  we  call  habits."  1 

Important  as  is  the  matter  of  individual  differences  in  edu- 
cation, there  is  still  some  danger  of  exaggerating  its  significance 
for  method.  Appalled  by  the  vast  array  of  possible  combina- 
tions and  degrees  of  differences  among  the  pupils  of  his  class, 
the  teacher  may  despair  of  adapting  his  method  of  instruc- 
tion to  them  all.  Factually  the  case  is  not  so  hopeless  after 
all.  Among  high  school  students  variations  are  seldom  ex- 
treme, and  the  desirable  traits  are  usually  fairly  well  corre- 
lated, so  that  really  the  class  consists  mainly  of  a  group  the 
members  of  which  differ  but  slightly,  and  demand  compara- 
tively slight  differences  of  treatment.2  Moreover,  the  fact 
that  students  respond  differently  to  a  situation  does  not  neces- 
sarily mean  that  the  situation  must  be  differently  presented 
to  them,  but  rather  that  the  different  responses  shall  be  recog- 
nized and,  so  far  as  possible,  be  so  directed  as  best  to  utilize 
the  differences  represented. 

Specific  Forms  of  Individualizing  Instruction. — We  have 
been  discussing  the  general  principles  which  should  govern 
in  individual  instruction  in  all  its  phases.  A  few  suggestions 
regarding  some  particular  forms  of  such  instruction  may  be 
of  profit.  Business  houses  have  long  since  learned  the  im- 
portance of  "following  up"  their  general  advertising  with  in- 
dividual attention  to  prospective  customers.  Elaborate  sys- 
tems of  indexing  have  been  devised  for  the  administration  of 
systematic  correspondence  and  visitation,  with  the  hope  that 
even  a  small  portion  of  the  efforts  may  bring  results.  With  a 
much  smaller  group  and  immensely  greater  chance  of  success, 
the  demand  for  a  ''follow-up"  system  in  instruction  seems 

1Thorndike,  "Educational  Psychology,"  vol.  Ill,  p.  314. 

2  Thorndike,  "Educational  Psychology,"  vol.  Ill,  pp.  362  ff.,  374-375. 


INDIVIDUAL  AND   SOCIAL  ELEMENTS  317 

not  only  rational  but  imperative.  Classroom  application, 
study  period,  laboratory  instruction,  and  personal  conference 
all  afford  an  opportunity  for  profitable  systematic  "folio wing- 
up"  instruction  which  has  hitherto  been  neglected,  or  at  best 
desultory.  Why  might  not  a  simple  card  index,  involving  an 
intelligent  adaptation  of  business  methods  to  individual  in- 
struction, be  an  appropriate  article  of  desk  equipment  for  the 
teacher's  study? 

In  the  classroom  application  the  use  of  blackboard  or  of 
written  work  affords  the  instructor  his  best  opportunity  for 
observing  the  individual  needs  of  all  his  pupils  at  one  time. 
Because  it  involves  all  of  them,  and  for  a  comparatively  short 
time,  its  systematic  administration  is  of  vital  importance. 
Elaborate  and  prolonged  instruction  of  one  or  two  indi- 
viduals is  obviously  wasteful  when  the  needs  of  the  group 
are  overlooked,  and  should  be  deferred  to  the  personal  con- 
ference. On  the  contrary,  attention  should  first  be  given  to  a 
general  oversight  of  the  entire  group,  primarily  to  the  points 
left  obscure  by  the  lesson  development  immediately  pre- 
ceding, and  to  principles  rather  than  to  details.  If  the  devel- 
opment of  the  lesson  is  found  to  have  been  inadequate,  the 
time  for  the  remedy  of  the  difficulty  is  then,  before  the  class 
undertake  the  further  application  in  the  outside  study.  If 
details  of  procedure  are  attended  to  at  the  expense  of  prin- 
ciples, the  many  will  suffer  in  the  gain  of  the  few.  On  the 
other  hand,  this  must  not  be  taken  to  justify  the  neglect  of 
accuracy  or  detail,  but  rather  its  subordination  to  the  general 
principle  (save  when  it  is  itself  the  chief  aim  of  the  lesson), 
and  the  deferring  of  it  to  personal  conference  in  case  it  and 
the  general  principle  cannot  both  be  adequately  dealt  with. 

Laboratory  instruction  in  its  various  forms  affords~aT 
much  better  opportunity  for  dealing  with  individual  needs 
than  does  the  class  exercise.  This  is  due  partly  to  its  more 
informal  character,  partly  to  the  longer  period  involved. 
Because  the  use  to  which  one  can  put  his  knowledge  is  a  final 
test  of  that  knowledge,  the  laboratory  affords  the  instructor 


318  PRINCIPLES   OF  TEACHING 

a  most  favorable  opportunity  to  discover  the  adequacy  of 
his  classroom  instruction.  He  must  be  watchful  not  for  re- 
sults alone,  but  for  methods,  and  by  occasional  questioning 
find  out  not  merely  the  how  but  the  why  of  the  student's 
procedure.  Much  so-called  laboratory  work,  in  library, 
laboratory,  or  field  excursion,  is  largely  imitation,  and  only 
by  individual  questioning,  possibly  at  intervals  during  the 
procedure,  can  the  student  be  brought  to  a  real  consciousness 
of  what  he  is  doing. 

The  study  hour,  because  of  its  peculiar  function  of  de- 
veloping self-reliance,  and  of  the  necessity  of  avoiding  distrac- 
tion for  the  group,  offers  somewhat  less  opportunity  for  indi- 
vidual attention.  On  the  other  hand,  the  advantages  which 
should  result  from  the  meeting  of  individual  needs  as  they 
arise  rather  than  in  the  next  class  exercise,  justify  the  teacher 
in  undertaking  more  than  mere  police  duty  in  the  study  hall. 
The  modern  movement  toward  supervised  study,  discussed 
in  Chapter  XII,  is  beginning  to  yield  very  positive  results, 
and  though  the  movement  is  still  in  its  infancy  and  the 
methods  still  to  be  worked  out,  the  high  school  teacher  must 
come  to  realize  that  the  lesson  preparation  under  supervision 
offers  splendid  opportunity  for  the  individualizing  of  the  in- 
struction, which  in  the  class  exercise  must  necessarily  be 
largely  general.  The  individual  work  of  the  study  super- 
vision obviously  provides  the  best  basis  for  the  "follow-up" 
work  above  suggested. 

The  value  of  the  personal  conference  has  already  been  re- 
ferred to  in  connection  with  the  examination.  Not  merely 
does  it  give  the  personal  acquaintance  and  sympathy  which 
render  all  teaching  more  effectual  and  inspiring,  but  it,  too, 
affords  peculiar  opportunity  for  the  "follow-up"  work  of 
instruction.  Here  the  needs  of  individuals  can  be  discovered 
and  met,  and  the  efficacy  of  the  succeeding  class  exercise 
very  greatly  increased.  The  conferences  need  not  always 
include  a  single  student,  but  groups  with  similar  needs  may 
often  be  called  in  conference,  with  the  added  advantages  of 


INDIVIDUAL   AND    SOCIAL  ELEMENTS  319 

economy  of  time  and  opportunity  for  mutual  helpfulness.  At 
such  conferences  the  rule  "business  first"  need  not  imply 
"business  only,"  for  the  creation  of  a  favorable  mood  and  the 
impression  that  the  teacher  is  not  merely  an  instructor  are 
valuable  conditions  for  teaching. 

Teacher  Assistance  and  Individual  Instruction. — Our  dis- 
cussion of  individual  instruction  may  well  close  with  a  word 
of  caution  which,  losing  none  of  its  importance  because  often 
spoken,  concerns  all  forms  of  individual  instruction.  School 
instruction  is  to  develop  ability,  not  to  secure  certain  par- 
ticular answers,  and  the  teacher  must  be  on  his  guard  lest  in 
his  attempt  to  assist  the  student  he  assist  him  to  get  answers 
rather  than  ability.  The  instructor  must  not  do  the  student's 
work  for  him,  but  should  rather  aim  to  increase  his  power  to 
the  point  where  he  can  do  it  himself.  If  a  problem  is  such 
that  the  student's  ability  cannot  be  made  adequate  for  it, 
the  problem  is  unsuited  to  him,  and  might  better  be  omitted. 
The  injunction,  "Do  nothing  for  the  student  that  he  can  do 
for  himself,"  would  better  express  our  thought  if  taken  to 
mean,  "Do  for  the  student  nothing  which  it  would  be  worth 
his  while  to  do  for  himself."  Occasionally  telling  him  some- 
thing which  he  could  have  found  out  for  himself  may  be  a 
real  help,  if  that  finding  out  would,  through  distraction  of  his 
attention  or  his  lack  of  skill,  have  prevented  or  seriously 
hindered  the  accomplishment  of  something  else  more  profita- 
ble. Not  merely  values  but  relative  values  must  be  reckoned 
with. 

2.    SOCIAL  INSTRUCTION 

Meaning. — The  responsibility  of  the  school  for  the  edu- 
cation of  the  child  for  his  own  individual  good  has  long  been 
recognized.  However,  society  has  a  right  to  expect  more 
than  this.  The  school  is  society's  chief  agency  for  the  sociali- 
zation of  its  future  members,  and  cannot  fulfil  its  function 
unless  it  trains  the  rising  generation  for  the  responsibilities 
as  well  as  the  privileges  of  social  membership.  Because  the 


320  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

secondary  school  deals  with  a  type  of  students  more  ad- 
vanced than  that  of  the  elementary  school,  and  intellectually 
better  fitted  for  leadership,  the  demand  that  it  shall  recog- 
nize the  obligation  of  social  training  is  peculiarly  urgent. 

In  the  preceding  section  we  applied  the  term  individual 
instruction  to  instruction  of  the  students  as  individuals,  and 
for  the  sake  of  meeting  individual  needs.  With  equal  justi- 
fication we  may  employ  the  term  social  instruction  for  that 
type  of  instruction  which  is  given  to  the  students  as  members 
of  a  group,  and  for  the  specific  purpose  of  meeting  social  needs 
and  developing  social  relationships  on  the  part  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  class.  In  both  cases  only  those  phases  of  the 
problem  are  considered  which  are  directly  involved  in  second- 
ary teaching.  With  the  philosophical  as  well  as  the  admin- 
istrative problems  of  social  education  we  are  here  only  inci- 
dentally concerned.  At  best  our  present  study  can  be  but 
incomplete,  because  the  application  of  sociology  to  secondary 
education  is  itself  a  field  in  which  very  little  has  yet  been 
done. 

Aims. — The  discussion  of  the  problem  of  social  instruc- 
tion in  the  secondary  school  naturally  resolves  itself  into  a 
twofold  one,  dealing  with  the  amis  of  social  instruction  and 
the  ways  in  which  they  can  be  attained  in  the  usual  school  in- 
struction of  class  exercise,  laboratory,  and  study  hour. 

Social  differs  from  individual  instruction  in  aim  and 
method,  but  the  difference  is  not  a  sharp  one,  and  the  differ- 
ence must  ultimately  be  based  upon  the  training  of  persons 
rather  than  of  the  group  as  a  whole.  Social  purposes  and 
social  procedure  are  to  be  employed  in  the  training  of  the  in- 
dividual. His  social  needs  are  to  be  met,  his  social  relation- 
ships realized;  he  is  to  be  socialized.  Social  instruction,  there- 
fore, must  ultimately  be  of  boys  and  girls,  not  of  the  class  as 
such;  it  must  be  particular  and  specific,  not  general  and  in- 
definite, for  the  character  of  the  class  is  determined  by  that 
of  its  members  acting  in  a  group,  and  the  social  training  of 
the  class  is  the  training  of  its  members  in  their  social  activi- 


INDIVIDUAL  AND    SOCIAL  ELEMENTS  321 

ties.  Accordingly,  our  problem  will  be  the  statement  of  the 
aims  to  be  attained  by  social  instruction,  and  the  methods  of 
their  attainment  through  the  training  of  the  students  who 
constitute  the  group. 

In  Chapter  III  four  aims  of  education  were  suggested: 
social  intelligence,  social  disposition,  social  efficiency,  and 
social  habit.  Sharp  differentiation  between  aims  is  impossi- 
ble and  useless.  It  is  far  less  important  that  they  be  mu- 
tually exclusive  than  that  they  be  all-inclusive,  taking  account 
of  all  the  requirements  of  social  instruction.  The  adequacy 
of  the  formulation  is  guaranteed  by  its  recognition  of  the 
three  forms  of  mental  activity,  as  well  as  of  the  permanence 
of  their  function. 

Social  intelligence  naturally  involves  in  the  first  place  an 
understanding  of  the  social  curriculum,  but  viewed  from  the 
distinctively  social  angle.  Each  subject  which  is  or  should 
be  in  the  high  school  curriculum  has  its  social  implication, 
although  as  commonly  taught  such  implication  is  but  little 
if  at  all  realized  by  either  teacher  or  pupil.  The  student 
usually  feels  that  education  is  a  possession  which  he  is  earn- 
ing, and  is,  therefore,  to  be  used  for  his  own  advantage.  Ac- 
cordingly, the  individualistic  aim  so  pervades  his  study  that 
the  social  phases  of  the  various  studies  are  seldom  noticed. 
Probably  civics,  history,  and  current  events  contain  the  most 
obvious  social  content,  since  all  deal  with  the  organization  of 
society  as  it  is  and  in  its  development.  The  sciences,  includ- 
ing the  physical,  biological,  and  mathematical,  and  especially 
the  vocational,  all  make  a  real  social  contribution,  principally 
through  their  economic  applications.  Literature  and  lan- 
guage study  are  to-day  coming  to  be  taught  as  a  means  of 
interpreting  the  social  feeling  and  ideals  of  the  race.  Manual 
training  and  domestic  science  have  a  real  economic  value, 
and  share  with  physical  training  and  hygiene  in  their  service 
to  the  social  institution  of  the  home.  The  specific  social 
content  and  method  of  each  of  these  studies  are  problems  for 
the  courses  in  the  special  methods  of  the  respective  subjects. 


322  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

Our  concern  here  is  with  the  general  social  aim  to  be  real- 
ized in  them  all,  and  its  significance  for  the  work  of  instruc- 
tion. 

A  second  form  of  social  intelligence  inseparably  connected 
with  the  above  is  the  knowledge  of  society.  Sometimes  im- 
plicit in  the  curriculum  study,  sometimes  explicitly  offered 
as  extra-curriculum  instruction,  it  may  be  provided  either 
unconsciously  or  consciously  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  It 
must  involve  a  first-hand  knowledge  of  actual  society,  and 
especially  that  society  of  which  the  student  is  a  part,  both 
within  and  without  the  school.  The  curriculum  specifically 
teaches  him  about  society,  which  is  good  so  far  as  it  goes. 
This  must,  however,  be  supplemented  with  an  intelligent  so- 
cial experience.  Coming  often  from  homes  where  such  mat- 
ters are  practically  ignored,  he  must,  tactfully  and  consider- 
ately, be  taught  the  conventionalities  and  proprieties  which 
society  demands,  and  should  be  shown  how  they  are  usually 
not  arbitrary,  but  have  been  evolved  for  the  preservation  and 
improvement  of  society.  Thus  he  can  be  led  to  criticise  and 
evaluate  the  motives  and  forces  which  are  active  in  the  society 
in  which  he  is  to  have  a  part,  and  later  in  his  high  school  course 
may  profitably  undertake  a  formal  study  of  elementary  social 
ethics. 

The  third  form  ol  social  intelligence  is  the  understanding 
of  oneself.  It  is  not  enough  that  one  know  about  society 
in  general  and  have  first-hand  knowledge  of  his  own  im- 
mediate social  environment  in  particular.  Since  he  is  to 
participate  actively  in  the  latter,  and  to  gradually  extend  his 
participation  to  embrace  more  and  more  of  the  former,  he 
must  know  his  own  personal  function  in  the  social  body,  in- 
volving a  knowledge  of  his  capacity,  his  needs,  and  his  own 
peculiar  social  opportunities  and  obligations.  He  must  see 
what  are  his  particular  talents,  and  how  these  can  by  ade- 
quate training  and  direction  be  adapted  to  the  social  oppor- 
tunities which  surround  him.  He  must  be  made  to  realize 
his  deficiencies,  and  his  obligation  to  society  to  remedy  these 


INDIVIDUAL   AND    SOCIAL   ELEMENTS  323 

in  so  far  as  possible,  and  render  himself  a  more  valuable  mem- 
ber of  the  social  group. 

Social  Disposition. — The  second  of  the  four  social  aims  is, 
doubtless,  the  most  difficult  to  secure.  Neither  teaching  one 
about  a  form  of  action  nor  compelling  him  to  perform  it  re- 
peatedly nor  capacitating  him  for  its  performance  will  cause 
one  to  want  to  do  it.  Intelligence,  habit,  and  efficiency  do 
not  necessarily  insure  disposition,  though  vital  for  its  proper 
functioning.  Even  a  desire  on  one's  part  for  a  social  dis- 
position will  not  suffice  for  its  acquisition.  One  cannot  like 
a  certain  person,  or  want  to  do  a  certain  thing,  because  he 
wants  to  like  or  wants  to  want.  Disposition  cannot  be  driven 
but  must  be  led,  and  led  tactfully.  And  yet  it  is  not  on  that 
account  wholly  beyond  control.  We  go  to  hear  inspirational 
discourses  on  moral  and  religious  themes  because  we  know 
that  as  a  result  we  will  more  earnestly  desire  to  do  the  right. 
We  seek  to  select  the  adolescent's  reading  and  associates  be- 
cause we  realize  the  control  these  exercise  over  his  disposition 
toward  the  best  things  of  life.  The  truth  seems  to  be  that 
the  student  is  influenced  far  more  by  persons  and  things  than 
by  principles,  and  the  foundation  for  social  disposition  must 
be  laid  in  the  concrete  and  personal  rather  than  the  abstract. 

The  content  of  study,  in  order  to  have  a  social  force,  must 
be  adapted  to  the  student,  lying  within  the  range  of  his  inter- 
ests, and  having  a  vital  significance  for  him.  In  civics  the 
study  of  the  election  of  the  mayor  has  more  training  value 
for  social  disposition  than  that  of  the  state  attorney-general, 
because  it  is  closer  to  his  own  experience  and  its  social  implica- 
tions are  more  real  to  him.  Quite  as  important  is  the  form 
of  its  preftentation,  which  must  lead  from  concrete  things  of 
the  student's  experience,  and  must  make  its  first  appeal  to  the 
interests  and  motives  already  active.  In  the  instance  just 
mentioned  the  social  disposition  in  state  affairs  can  best  be 
attained  by  starting  with  those  of  the  city,  in  which  the  boy 
is  already  interested,  and  broadening  that  interest  until  it 
includes  the  more  general  and  remote.  In  so  far  as  the  sub- 


324  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

ject  permits  it  should  be  given  in  terms  of  action.  The  stu- 
dent is  but  little  concerned  with  mere  facts  about  the  office 
of  mayor,  but  what  the  mayor  does,  and  what  he  himself 
may  have  to  do  with  the  mayor's  election,  have  for  him  a  real 
social  appeal. 

The  choice  of  content  is,  for  the  development  of  social 
disposition,  far  less  fruitful  than  the  manner  of  its  teaching. 
Social  disposition  is  itself  a  matter  of  attitude,  and  the  atti- 
tude assumed  toward  any  instruction  is  largely  determined 
by  that  of  the  instructor.  Just  as  many  students  like  a  study 
because  the  teacher  of  that  study  is  friendly,  so  the  entire 
environment  has  its  influence  on  the  disposition  of  the  student 
toward  what  he  learns.  The  teacher's  personal  manner  toward 
his  pupils  and  his  work  is  peculiarly  influential,  because  they, 
consciously  or  unconsciously,  look  to  him  as  a  leader,  and 
tend  to  assume  the  same  attitude  that  he  does.  The  mood  of 
the  child  also  determines  greatly  his  response  to  situations 
and  obligations.  For  example,  public  criticism  for  a  breach 
of  courtesy  may  easily  render  the  child  antagonistic  toward 
all  social  conventionalities.  Thus,  the  choice  of  time  and  con- 
ditions of  social  instruction  may  well  receive  consideration. 
Social  sentiment  is  another  powerful  factor,  and  every  teacher 
knows  well  how  the  approval  or  disapproval  of  the  group 
affects  the  attitude  of  the  individual  member  of  the  group 
in  matters  of  his  social  relationships.  Attempting  to  train 
a  boy  to  be  polite  and  considerate  when  the  group  considers 
these  qualities  effeminate  can  seldom  extend  beyond  per- 
functory conformity,  with  no  changes  in  the  social  disposi- 
tion. Since  groups  regularly  follow  leaders,  a  wise  plan  is, 
when  possible,  to  bring  the  leaders  of  the  groups  to  assume 
a  right  social  attitude  in  their  leadership,  and  the  powerful 
force  of  social  sentiment  will  soon  follow  to  reinforce  it. 
Sympathy  between  the  teacher  and  his  pupils  will  result  in 
his  being  one,  and  the  chief  one,  of  those  leaders.  In  the 
same  way  the  students  should  be  taught  to  recognize  good 
leaderships  and  good  society,  so  that  in  later  years  the  social 


INDIVIDUAL  AND   SOCIAL  ELEMENTS  325 

sentiment  to  which  he  responds  will  be  that  which  is  in  har- 
mony with  his  highest  ideals.  Naturally,  social  disposition 
is  inseparable  from  moral  disposition,  hi  both  origin  and 
function,  and  the  demands  of  social  life  furnish  reinforcement 
for  moral  training.  In  the  words  of  Professor  O'Shea,  "The 
pupil  must  be  led  to  see  the  social  necessity  for  every  moral 
attitude  urged  upon  him."  1 

Social  efficiency,  our  third  ami,  is  by  no  means  distinct 
from  the  other  three,  and  is  by  some  writers  taken  as  inclu- 
sive of  them.  The  word  "efficiency"  suggests  the  ability  to 
bring  things  to  pass,  to  put  ideals  into  realization.  The  effi- 
cient person  is  one  who  can  be  depended  upon  to  do  the 
right  thing,  and  in  the  right  way.  Certainly  social  knowledge 
and  disposition  contribute  to  social  efficiency,  and  perhaps  it 
may  be  thought  of  as  constituted  by  the  synthesis  of  the  two 
elements  functioning  as  a  unit.  For  our  purpose,  however, 
its  importance  lies  hi  its  peculiar  emphasis  upon  action. 
Instruction's  part  hi  securing  social  efficiency  culminates  in 
its  binding  appropriate  action  to  knowledge  and  feeling,  the 
application  to  the  principle.  This  implies  that  following  up 
the  teaching  of  social  relationships  and  obligations  in  the 
classroom  there  should  come  at  once  their  realization,  as 
truly  as  in  the  teaching  of  mathematical  operations  or  scien- 
tific principles.  Moreover,  the  instruction  should  be  such 
that  the  self-government  and  social  life  of  the  school  are 
forms  of  its  application,  and  not  wholly  distinct  from  it,  as 
is  usually  the  case.  The  principles  that  are  to  control  con- 
duct should  not  merely  be  idealized  hi  the  classroom  instruc- 
tion, but  should  find  there  their  first  application,  and  as  ex- 
pression is  a  step  toward  application  they  should  be  ex- 
pressed there  as  well.  The  intellectual  training  derived  from 
the  class  instruction  in  English  composition  may  be  given 
social  application  in  contributions  to  the  school  paper,  and 
the  geometry  may  be  put  to  use  for  common  good  on  the 
planning  of  the  running  track  or  tennis  court,  if  prompted 
'O'Shea,  "Social  Development  and  Education,"  p.  269. 


326  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

by  the  right  spirit.  Thus  there  will  be  built  up  a  connection 
whereby  the  social  conditions  of  the  class  work  will  provide 
the  basis  for  social  instruction,  which  under  the  impetus  of 
social  disposition  will  lead  to  classroom  application,  and 
thence  spread  to  the  other  school  activities,  and  thus  into  the 
later  life  of  the  student  in  the  outside  world. 

Social  habit  is  to  social  disposition  what  the  flywheel  is 
to  the  engine.  The  social  impulse,  like  the  impulse  of  the 
steam  in  the  cylinder,  is  not  constant,  nor  are  the  obstacles 
it  is  to  encounter  or  the  load  of  the  engine  always  the  same. 
In  either  case  steadiness  of  action  is  vital,  and  is  secured  by 
the  momentum  of  the  social  habit,  in  the  one  case,  and  the 
flywheel  in  the  other.  If,  as  ethics  teaches  us,  character  is 
"a  fixed  habit  of  will,"  social  character  is  such  a  fixed  habit 
of  will,  and  the  possessor  of  a  good  habit  has,  using  Professor 
James's  apt  phrase,  a  most  helpful  ally  in  life's  battles.  The 
high  school  graduate,  encountering  the  situations  of  life  with- 
out the  immediate  assistance  of  the  school  environment  and 
influence,  will  often  be  called  upon  to  choose  lines  of  social 
action  in  the  face  of  strong  antisocial  influences.  It  is  here 
that  habits  acquired  in  the  school  training  give  him  a  mo- 
mentum to  reinforce  the  otherwise  inadequate  social  impulse, 
and  the  resultant  choice  is  rightly  made. 

In  an  earlier  chapter1  the  laws  of  habit  formation  were 
given  as  two,  which  we  called  the  laws  of  initiation  and  fixa- 
tion. First  give  a  new  habit  as  strong  a  motive  as  possible, 
and  then  repeat  the  activity  until  it  is  thoroughly  established. 
In  the  forming  of  social  habits  these  principles  hold.  Having 
given  the  student  the  initial  motive,  by  adequate  intelligence, 
disposition,  and  efficiency,  the  social  conduct  must  be  fixated 
by  repetition.  This  would  involve  such  an  organization  of 
the  school  that  the  student  would  continually  be  called  upon 
to  act  upon  his  social  ideals,  in  the  permanent  forms  of  self- 
government,  social  organizations,  athletics,  and  the  like. 
However,  our  present  problem  is  that  of  instruction,  which 
should  be  basal  for  the  other  phases  of  the  school  life. 

1  Cf.  p.  85. 


INDIVIDUAL   AND   SOCIAL   ELEMENTS  327 

The  various  activities  of  the  classroom,  such  as  passing 
to  the  board,  collecting  of  papers,  and,  still  more  important, 
the  assisting  of  fellow  students  and  teacher  and  co-operation 
•with  them  in  common  undertakings,  and  all  that  the  term 
esprit  de  corps  implies — all  these  furnish  abundant  scope  for 
the  establishment  of  social  habits.  Thus,  in  the  conduct  of 
the  class  exercise,  the  laboratory,  and  the  study  hour,  oppor- 
tunity should  be  sought  for  the  frequent  and  repeated  doing 
of  the  thing  desired  to  habitualize.  Many  of  the  difficulties 
encountered  in  administering  student  government  and  fife 
outside  the  classroom  could  have  been  escaped  had  the  social 
habits  been  initiated  in  the  class  exercise  where  instruction 
and  guidance  can  play  a  large  part. 

School  Agencies  for  Social  Instruction. — What  agencies 
has  the  high  school  at  its  service  for  the  realization  of  these 
four  social  aims  just  discussed?  Perhaps  it  might  rather  be 
questioned  whether  there  is  any  phase  of  the  school  activity 
which  does  not  afford  opportunity  for  serial  training,  for  not 
infrequently  the  activities  most  mechanized  and  devitalized 
could,  if  properly  utilized,  be  made  to  render  the  most  helpful 
serial  training.  With  our  field  limited  to  the  primarily  in- 
structional rather  than  the  administrative  phases  of  the  ques- 
tion, there  naturally  suggest  themselves  to  us  the  three  agen- 
cies already  studied:  the  class  exercise,  the  laboratory  in  its 
various  forms,  and  to  some  degree  the  study  hour.  How 
these  may  be  so  conducted  as  to  realize  the  serial  aims  con- 
stitutes the  second  part  of  our  problem  of  social  instruction. 

The  class  exercise  is  naturally  the  centre  of  the  school 
life,  socially  as  well  as  intellectually.  In  Chapter  IV  we 
quoted  Professor  Dewey's  reference  to  it  as  "  a  serial  clearing- 
house, where  experiences  and  ideas  are  exchanged  and  sub- 
jected to  criticism,  where  misconceptions  are  corrected,  and 
new  lines  of  thought  and  inquiry  set  up."  With  accent  upon 
its  serial  aspect,  it  might  be  described  as  a  social  clearing- 
house, where  capacities  and  interests  are  pooled  and  put  to 
the  test  of  service,  where  non-social  traits  are  corrected  and 


328  PRINCIPLES  OF   TEACHING 

new  fields  of  social  endeavor  discovered.  For  the  realization 
of  such  an  ideal  the  formal  character  of  the  typical  classroom 
procedure  is  ill  adapted.  For  military  manoeuvres  where 
identity  of  action  under  command  is  the  goal,  ranks  and  files 
serve  a  purpose,  but  not  for  the  classroom,  and  the  checker- 
board alignment  of  immovable  seats  is  being  displaced  by 
the  grouping  of  the  students  about  tables,  or  in  other  arrange- 
ments conducive  to  the  social  spirit  which  should  dominate. 
This  does  not  imply  the  substitution  of  chaos  for  order,  for 
there  must  always  be  system  and  method  of  procedure  where 
several  persons  are  to  work  together.  It  is  rather  a  substi- 
tution of  form  for  formalism. 

This  reform  in  seating  plan  is  but  a  minor  phase  of  the 
needed  reform  in  the  general  classroom  procedure,  with  the 
idea  of  the  class  exercise  as  a  reciting  to  the  teacher,  where 
the  teacher  asks  questions  of  individual  students  and  the 
student  gives  his  answer  to  the  teacher  alone.  Not  merely 
should  the  teacher's  question  be  addressed  to  the  whole  class, 
but  the  answer  should  likewise  be  an  answer  to  the  class,  not 
to  the  teacher  only,  and  spoken  loudly  and  clearly  enough  for 
all  to  hear.  The  central  thought  should  be  that  the  class  is 
a  social  group  working  for  a  common  end,  and  that  what  is 
correct  in  good  society  generally  is  the  correct  thing  for  the 
classroom.  Carelessness  in  the  thought  or  in  the  expression 
of  what  is  said  should  be  resented  by  the  class  as  a  slight, 
and  the  force  of  social  sentiment  brought  to  bear  upon  the 
offender.  In  similar  manner,  a  piece  of  class  work  well  done 
should  win  the  approval  not  merely  of  the  teacher  but  of  the 
group. 

All  this  is  possible  only  on  the  basis  of  a  social  conscious- 
ness, a  feeling  of  solidarity,  which  is  an  essential  for  the  social 
participation  of  adult  life,  and  is  far  more  easy  to  secure  with 
adolescents  than  might  at  first  be  supposed.  The  same  force 
which  makes  high  school  students  want  to  manage  their  own 
athletics,  debating  and  literary  organizations,  and  which 
makes  student  self-government  successful  can  with  equal 


INDIVIDUAL  AND   SOCIAL  ELEMENTS  329 

justification,  though  to  a  less  degree,  be  utilized  in  the  class- 
room. The  sense  of  proprietorship,  the  zest  of  self-control, 
the  feeling  of  responsibility,  or  the  spirit  of  self-reliance  (call 
it  what  you  will)  is  strong  in  the  youth,  and  under  guidance 
can  become  possibly  the  most  valuable  acquisition  of  his 
high  school  days.  Yet  guidance  is  necessary  in  an  unfamiliar 
territory,  and  in  the  work  of  instruction,  at  least,  the  youth 
will  seek  it,  readily  acknowledging  his  lack  of  knowledge  and 
training.  Thus,  in  the  properly  organized  class  group  the 
teacher  becomes  the  acknowledged  leader  in  the  instruction, 
a  leader  by  virtue  of  recognized  merit  rather  than  by  force 
of  the  school  authority,  which  is  kept  in  the  background. 
In  a  sense  the  teacher  becomes  the  property  of  the  class,  to 
be  used  for  the  good  of  the  group,  and  all  the  more  valuable 
property  because  a  person  rather  than  a  reference  book  or 
apparatus. 

The  fundamental  principles  of  the  social  organization  of 
the  class  instruction  are  thus  seen  to  be  two:  student  co- 
operation and  teacher  leadership.  The  concept  of  teacher 
leadership  implies  that  of  student  self-activity.  It  suggests 
that  in  each  student  there  is  in  all  the  instruction  process  a 
degree  of  initiative.  Thus  viewed,  the  tendencies  toward 
unthinking  conformity,  known  as  suggestion  and  imitation, 
are  antisocial  to  the  degree  that  they  involve  non-critical 
acceptance  and  following  of  authority  or  prestige.  A  recog- 
nition that  the  teacher  is  probably  right,  and  a  desire  to  un- 
derstand why,  are  the  better  and  more  social  forms  of  sug- 
gestion and  imitation.  The  concept  of  the  student's  mutual 
co-operation  implies  a  disposition  to  help  one's  neighbor  even 
at  the  expense  of  personal  convenience.  Thus  viewed,  the 
employment  of  emulation  in  instruction  is  dangerous  in  its 
tendency  to  place  a  premium  upon  the  failure  of  others.  A 
desire  to  excel  because  the  thing  is  worth  the  effort  made, 
and  a  realization  that  success  in  the  competition  is  most 
commendable  after  helping  one's  competitor  to  do  his  best, 
are  the  social  correctives  in  emulation. 


330  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

Forms  of  Socialization  of  Instruction. — These  two  funda- 
mental principles  of  the  socialized  class  exercise  are  easily 
formulated  and  readily  accepted.  The  ways  in  which  they 
are  to  be  applied  in  practice  are  neither  simple  to  devise  nor 
universal  in  form.  The  degree  of  student  responsibility  in 
the  instruction  ranges  all  the  way  from  almost  none  to  almost 
complete,  depending  much  upon  such  factors  as  the  maturity 
of  the  students,  the  character  of  the  work,  the  size  of  the  class, 
the  equipment  of  the  school,  and,  most  of  all,  the  attitude  of 
the  teacher  and  principal. 

The  most  conservative  form  of  socialization  of  instruction 
is  that  in  which  student  responsibility  in  instruction  is  limited 
to  their  mutual  co-operation.  Here  the  central  thought  is 
that  of  mutual  helpfulness.  Students  are  naturally  willing 
to  help  one  another  when  their  attention  is  called  to  the 
possibility  of  so  doing.  The  chief  difficulty  is  thoughtlessness 
and  inexperience.  Showing  them  how,  calling  attention  to 
the  need,  assigning  a  particular  task,  and  making  it  a  regular 
part  of  the  instruction  are  respectively  but  the  concrete  appli- 
cation of  our  four  aims:  social  intelligence,  social  disposition, 
social  efficiency,  and  social  habit.  The  teacher  is  prone  to 
think  that  he  alone  must  do  for  his  students  all  that  is  done 
for  them.  Even  if  he  can  do  it  more  skilfully,  there  is  lost 
the  greater  benefit  to  both  helper  and  helped  which  results 
when  one  member  of  the  group  assists  his  neighbor  or  neigh- 
bors. Moreover,  it  sometimes  happens  that  a  student  better 
appreciates  the  difficulties  of  his  fellow  because  of  a  greater 
nearness  to  his  intellectual  level,  and  can  touch  the  vital 
point  overlooked  by  the  teacher.  On  the  other  hand,  pupils 
are  likely  to  mistake  the  character  of  helpfulness,  thinking  it 
consists  in  facilitating  the  getting  of  answers  instead  of  de- 
veloping power.  Attention  given  to  showing  the  class  the 
real  aim  in  instruction,  and  giving  them  the  responsibility 
for  the  quaKty  of  help  they  render,  adds  greatly  to  their  effi- 
ciency in  more  ways  than  the  one  for  which  it  is  primarily 
designed. 


INDIVIDUAL   AND    SOCIAL   ELEMENTS  331 

The  classroom  may  very  well  adapt  and  adopt  the  team 
work  of  the  athletic  field.  The  ability  to  work  with  one's 
fellows  is  an  important  ekment  in  efficiency,  and  may  well 
be  cultivated  in  the  class  exercise.  Forms  in  which  it  may 
be  developed  are  the  debate  and  the  joint  report  by  several, 
or  even  all,  of  the  members  of  the  class.  Here  each  must 
co-operate  with  the  others  for  a  common  end,  and  without 
"playing  to  the  grand  stand."  The  success  of  the  group  is 
his  success,  and  its  responsibility  his  responsibility. 

The  spirit  of  helpfulness  may  serve  to  give  a  new  sig- 
nificance to  an  activity  commonly  employed,  but  sometimes 
with  an  antisocial  influence.  The  classroom  has  been  re- 
peatedly referred  to  as  the  place  for  the  exchange  of  ideas, 
where  they  may  be  amplified,  clarified,  and  corrected.  When 
this  is  done  by  the  teacher,  it  loses  its  special  value.  When 
done  by  fellow  students,  it  may  take  on  the  character  of  fault- 
finding and  picking  of  flaws,  with  the  "I-know-better-than- 
that"  attitude.  Not  only  the  abler  but  even  the  weaker 
student  joins  in  the  smile  of  superiority  at  the  expense  of  the 
mistaken  one.  When  the  spirit  of  helpful  criticism  prevails, 
each  seeks  to  remedy  the  shortcomings  of  his  fellows,  sharing 
in  the  regret  at  his  deficiencies  and  the  gratification  over  his 
successes.  Thus  the  class  comes  to  experience  such  a  sense 
of  solidarity  that  it  feels  the  successes  and  failures  of  its 
individual  members  to  be  the  successes  and  failures  of  the 
group,  just  as  the  whole  school  boasts  of  its  athletic  team's 
victories  and  condones  its  defeats. 

The  three  preceding  paragraphs  suggest  to  us  the  three 
forms  of  responsibility  which  function  in  the  mutual  student 
co-operation:  responsibility  of  the  class  to  the  individual, 
responsibility  of  the  individual  to  the  class,  and  responsibility 
of  the  class  for  the  individual. 

In  the  realization  of  these  responsibilities  the  student 
"finds  himself"  socially.  Thus  he  comes  to  discover  his 
ability  and  his  obligation  to  serve  society.  The  division  of 
labor  incident  to  co-operative  group  work  will  naturally  be 


332  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

based  upon  the  group's  estimate  of  his  fitness.  Herein  he 
will  find  a  social  incentive  to  rise  to  his  best  capacity,  and  to 
develop  his  peculiar  talents  through  and  for  the  service  of  the 
group.  What  is  especially  important,  he  will  work  under 
conditions  and  be  prompted  by  motives  closely  parallel  to 
those  of  adult  society  rather  than  those  of  mere  obedience  to 
authority.  A  good  foundation  for  social  membership  will 
have  been  laid. 

A  more  radical  form  of  socialized  instruction  is  that  in 
which  the  student  responsibility  extends  to  actual  participa- 
tion in  the  instruction,  not  merely  in  mutual  co-operation, 
but  directly  in  that  they  undertake  some  of  the  teaching  it- 
self. This  may  even  extend  to  what  might  be  termed  stu- 
dent direction  of  the  instruction  as  well  as  mere  student  par- 
ticipation in  it.  Some  attention  has  of  late  been  attracted 
by  the  advocacy  of  a  plan  whereby  the  teacher  becomes  a 
spectator,  and  the  conduct  of  the  class  is  placed  in  the  hands 
of  a  student  leader.1  The  leader  calls  upon  some  student  for 
a  topical  recitation  upon  a  point  in  the  lesson  assigned,  and 
the  other  students  take  the  attitude  of  critics.  Each  stu- 
dent is  responsible  to  the  class  for  the  justification  of  his 
criticism,  as  well  as  for  the  supplementing  of  what  has  been 
recited.  Further  topics  are  suggested  by  leader  or  class, 
until  the  lesson  has  been  recited  upon  or  the  period  has  ex- 
pired. Such  a  plan  has  several  points  in  its  favor.  It  de- 
velops the  initiative  and  responsibility  of  the  class,  trains  in 
respect  for  and  co-operation  with  the  authority  of  even  a 
member  of  the  grouj>,  exercises  judgment  in  the  evaluation  of 
the  lesson  material,  both  as  to  accuracy  and  relative  impor- 
tance, and  awakens  general  interest,  at  the  same  time  giving 
much  of  the  training  in  oral  expression  incident  to  topical 
recitation.  The  name  under  which  it  is  often  advocated, 
the  "socialized  recitation,"  is  not  inapt.  It  certainly  is  social- 
ized, combining  as  it  does  so  many  of  the  social  elements  we 

'Such  a  plan  is  described  in  the  School  Review,  vol.  XVII,  No.  255. 
A  modified  form  of  the  use  of  monitors  in  teaching  is  suggested  by  Parker 
in  his  "Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools,"  pp.  382  ff. 


INDIVIDUAL  AND   SOCIAL  ELEMENTS  333 

have  mentioned.  Unfortunately,  the  word  "recitation"  is 
also  apt,  for  when  immature  students  have  the  direction  of 
the  class  exercise  it  is  prone  to  resolve  itself  into  a  mere  reci- 
tation. For  the  development  of  new  material  it  is  mani- 
festly unsuited,  since  in  view  of  the  immaturity  of  the  stu- 
dents it  would  involve  the  "blind  leading  the  blind,"  and  the 
waste  of  the  most  valuable  educational  asset  of  the  class,  viz., 
the  teacher's  training.  For  an  occasional  variation  in  the 
conduct  of  the  recitation  instruction  upon  comparatively 
simple  content,  it  has  been  found  admirable. 

Student. participation,  stopping  short  of  full  control,  is  far 
more  available  and  safe.  Students  enjoy  having  a  share  in 
the  work  of  instruction,  even  though  it  extend  no  further 
than  the  supplying  of  materials.  As  illustrations  of  such 
participation  might  be  mentioned  the  collecting  of  science 
specimens  and  materials,  loaning  of  books  and  magazines, 
and  bringing  of  pictures  for  illustrative  purposes.  Volunteer- 
ing to  secure  some  desired  information,  to  work  a  problem  for 
the  class,  or  to  prepare  a  report  or  discussion  on  some  de- 
sired topic  would  be  helpful  participation  in  several  ways. 
The  selection  of  particular  students  to  prepare  for  the  class  a 
description  of  what  was  seen  on  a  field  trip,  the  demonstration 
of  a  proposition,  the  translation  of  a  passage,  or  a  character- 
sketch  of  an  author  studied  in  literature  would  illustrate  such 
participation  especially  well  when  the  emphasis  is  laid  on  the 
assignment  as  representing  the  class  through  the  very  best 
that  one  of  its  members,  perhaps  its  best  qualified  member, 
can  do.  The  central  thought  permeating  it  all  must  be  that 
of  assisting  in  the  instruction,  not  that  of  meeting  the  de- 
mand of  the  teacher.  Teachers  may  occasionally,  with  great 
social  and  instructional  profit,  suggest  to  the  class  that 
through  their  chosen  representative,  assisted  by  the  group, 
they  explain  to  one  of  their  number  a  problem  which  baffles 
him.  Explanation  in  such  a  case  has  for  the  students  a  real 
function,  and  they  discover  better  than  in  any  other  way 
what  constitutes  good  explanation. 


334  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

Encouraging  students  to  suggest  topics  for  study  and 
problems  for  solution  encourages  a  responsibility  for  their 
contributions,  for  they  soon  discover  the  loss  and  difficulty 
resulting  when  the  choice  was  thoughtlessly  made.  Further 
value  lies  in  the  fact  that  such  problems  are  usually  real  ones 
for  the  class,  and  will  be  more  earnestly  attacked  because  they 
feel  a  measure  of  responsibility  for  them. 

The  laboratory  instruction,  as  the  second  of  the  agencies 
for  the  realization  of  the  social  aims,  has  a  peculiar  oppor- 
tunity in  the  greater  liberty  of  the  students,  and  hence  in  the 
greater  responsibility  that  accompanies  that  liberty.  The 
form  of  procedure  is  that  of  the  workroom,  and  the  rules  that 
govern  are  those  best  adapted  for  the  good  of  the  group,  un- 
hampered by  tradition.  Since  the  laboratory,  in  its  various 
forms,  is  thought  of  by  the  student  as  a  place  for  work,  with 
responsibility  for  results,  he  readily  recognizes  the  importance 
of  good  working  conditions,  unhampered  by  the  mischief  or 
thoughtlessness  of  his  fellows.  Naturally  the  degree  of  re- 
straint in  the  laboratory  instruction  depends  upon  many 
factors,  varying  from  the  great  liberty  of  the  field  excursion 
to  the  greater  self-restraint  and  quiet  of  the  library,  and  the 
student  can  quickly  learn  to  adjust  himself,  thus  developing 
thoughtfulness  and  self-control.  The  training  thus  provided 
in  adaptation  in  work  to  the  rights  of  others  is,  in  itself,  one 
of  the  important  social  lessons  of  the  school.  The  field  ex- 
cursion by  groups,  or  of  the  entire  class,  may  take  on  in  a 
measure  the  character  of  social  service  when,  at  the  expense 
of  real  effort,  specimens  are  collected  for  the  school  museum, 
or  even  one  quite  apart  from  the  school,  perhaps  of  another 
less  favored  school. 

Because  of  the  greater  degree  of  individuality  in  its  work 
than  in  that  of  the  class  exercise,  less  opportunity  is  offered 
for  co-operative  effort  on  a  common  task.  In  library  work 
there  is  practically  none.  Some  is  offered  in  the  school  excur- 
sion in  a  systematic  division  of  effort  in  the  search  for  speci- 
mens, investigation  of  land  formations,  and  preparation  of  a 


INDIVIDUAL  AND    SOCIAL  ELEMENTS  335 

joint  report  upon  observations.  In  the  school  laboratory 
itself  an  experiment  or  observation  may  be  made  by  the  class 
working  together;  for  example,  in  the  quantitative  work  in 
physics  the  average  of  all  the  results  obtained  by  students 
may  be  employed  as  the  basis  for  further  experimentation. 
Different  students  in  biological  work  may  undertake  the  ob- 
servation of  different  features  of  a  single  plant  or  animal  form, 
and  the  results  of  all  be  united  in  a  joint  description  to  be 
entered  in  the  notebooks  of  all.  Still  more  frequent  will  be 
partnership  work  wherein  two  work  together  upon  a  problem, 
the  results  of  both  being  united  for  a  joint  report.  A  social 
value  in  all  these  cases  lies  in  the  responsibility  of  each  stu- 
dent for  the  accuracy  and  adequacy  of  his  results,  since  his 
failures  become  the  failures  of  the  group,  and  all  suffer  or 
profit  with  him. 

The  study  hour  offers  far  less  opportunity  for  social  in- 
struction. The  facts  that  study  demands  quiet  and  that  its 
chief  feature  is  independent  work  leave  but  a  narrow  range 
for  social  work  as  directly  connected  with  instruction.  What 
there  is  enters  largely  in  the  self-restraint  and  thoughtfulness 
of  one's  fellows,  which  the  pupil  in  his  study  demands  from 
others,  and  hi  turn  learns  to  accord  them.  He  learns  to  do 
things  in  an  orderly  manner,  not  for  the  sake  of  himself  but 
for  that  of  others.  To  some  degree,  and  under  proper  man- 
agement, students  may  be  encouraged  to  assist  one  another 
in  the  preparation  of  lessons,  though  there  is  danger  of  so 
doing  resulting  in  more  harm  than  good,  mainly  through  dis- 
turbance of  neighbors  and  lack  of  oversight.  A  social  value 
of  a  different  sort  is  derived  from  the  training  of  self-reliance 
in  work,  encouraging  the  pupil  to  master  his  difficulties  him- 
self rather  than  disturb  pupils  or  teacher  unnecessarily.  The 
occasion  may  be  utilized  for  suggesting  to  pupils  the  applica- 
tion of  the  same  principles  to  the  study  done  at  home  in  the 
midst  of  the  home  circle.  Social  training  whose  influence  does 
not  reach  beyond  the  school  walls  and  the  school  hours  falls 
far  short  of  its  true  aim. 


336  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

3.    THE  RELATION  BETWEEN  INDIVIDUAL  AND  SOCIAL 
INSTRUCTION 

The  relation  between  individual  and  social  instruction 
has  too  long  been  thought  of  as  one  of  antagonism,  and  from 
this  interpretation  has  arisen  a  disposition  to  assume  that 
one  of  the  two  must  be  sacrificed  for  the  other.  If  indi- 
viduality means  the  sacrifice  of  one's  neighbor's  interests  for 
one's  own,  it  is  antisocial.  If  social  instruction  means  the 
submersion  of  personality  in  the  mass,  it  negates  the  indi- 
vidual. However,  neither  meaning  is  correct.  The  truly 
social  is  that  which  is  based  upon  the  personality  of  the  indi- 
vidual members  of  the  group,  and  the  truly  individual  is  that 
which  is  possible  in  its  completeness  only  as  a  part  of  the 
social  unity. 

As  the  teacher  faces  his  class  of  twenty  pupils,  what  shall 
the  group  mean  to  him?  He  may  view  it  as  twenty  repeti- 
tions of  the  typical  student,  or  he  may  regard  it  as  twenty 
adolescents  whose  relationship  is  merely  that  of  all  of  them 
being  students  of  the  same  subject  at  the  same  time  and 
place.  Either  interpretation  is  inadequate.  No  two  students 
are  duplicates,  interchangeable  like  the  pawns  on  the  chess- 
board. Neither  are  they  unrelated,  free  to  move  about  the 
board  independently.  Instead,  they  are  the  major  pieces, 
kings  and  queens,  bishops  and  knights  and  rooks.  To  the 
chess-player  these  constitute  a  unity,  a  system  wherein  each 
plays  a  peculiar  part,  often  widely  different,  often  very  similar, 
yet  always  related  each  to  each.  Personify  these  chessmen, 
making  them  consciously  and  purposively  participative  in  the 
play,  and  we  have  a  reasonably  accurate  picture  of  the  class 
as  the  teacher  sees  it  before  him. 

Frequent  reference  has  been  made  to  the  response  of  the 
student  to  situations,  both  intellectual  and  emotional.  Be- 
cause no  two  persons  have  the  same  background  of  experience 
or  of  heredity,  because  their  intellectual  and  emotional  needs 
and  interests  differ,  these  individual  differences  will  lead  to 


INDIVIDUAL   AND    SOCIAL  ELEMENTS  337 

differences  of  responses.  Naturally  each  response,  as  the 
meeting  of  an  individual  need,  has  its  individual  value.  At 
the  same  tune  a  potential  social  value  lies  in  the  variety  of 
the  responses,  in  that  each  contributes  a  distinct  viewpoint 
and  interpretation  of  the  environment  and  of  life.  The  ex- 
perience of  every  man  is  richer  because  of  his  contact  with 
another  man,  who  responds  differently  to  situations  that  con- 
front both.  Thus  we  saw  that  a  leading  function  of  the  class 
exercise  is  its  provision  for  exchange,  comparison,  and  recon- 
struction of  ideas,  ideals,  and  attitudes.  Individual  study 
leads  the  pupil  to  train  his  own  knowledge  and  feelings,  but 
since  he  is  to  be  a  part  of  the  social  group,  society  demands 
that  he  shall  adapt  these  to  the  social  knowledge  and  feeling 
and  resultant  action. 

This  is  not  a  process  of  substitution,  but  one  of  expan- 
sion. Nothing  of  his  own  is  really  lost,  but  all  goes  to  shape 
the  intellectual,  emotional,  and  volitional  life  of  the  group. 
As  a  member  of  society  the  individual  is  under  obligation, 
both  on  his  own  account  and  on  that  of  society,  to  contribute 
and  conform.  However,  the  conformity  is  neither  repressive 
nor  absolute.  Rather  it  is  the  broadening  of  the  individual's 
interests,  his  intellectual  and  emotional  wants,  until  they  have 
become  social  interests,  and  he  shall  want  for  society  what 
society  needs,  as  well  as  want  for  himself  what  he  himself 
needs.  Further,  he  shall  have  been  trained  to  work  with 
society  in  the  attainment  of  society's  wants,  contributing  his 
individual  talents  in  the  rendering  of  his  individual  part  in  the 
attainment.  He  shall  remain  an  individual  while  becoming 
social. 

This  discussion  of  the  relation  of  the  individual  and  so- 
cial aims  is  implicitly  a  discussion  of  the  relation  of  individual 
and  social  instruction.  The  former  is  instruction  directed 
explicitly  to  the  training  of  the  individual's  talents  and  capaci- 
ties, the  latter  is  instruction  which  seeks  to  bring  these  talents 
and  capacities  into  social  service.  Complete  instruction  thus 
involves  both  individual  and  social,  and  not  as  distinct  but 


338  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

as  aspects  of  a  single  process.  Thus  viewed  it  will  seek  to 
develop  individual  initiative  in  responding  to  social  demands 
and  ideals. 

Individual  instruction  is  the  recognition  and  development 
of  desirable  individual  differences.  It  is  a  process  of  differ- 
entiation. Social  instruction  consists  in  adapting  and  ad- 
justing together  the  members  of  the  group  to  form  a  unity 
which  we  call  society.  It  is  a  process  of  integration.  The 
differentiation  must  culminate  in  the  integration.  Society 
can  be  organic  only  when  each  individual  plays  his  part,  and 
that  part,  determined  by  his  individual  talents  and  traits, 
must  be  developed  with  a  consideration  of  their  function  in 
fitting  the  individual  for  social  participation.  Education's 
task  is  the  development  of  these  individual  talents  and  traits, 
and  the  individual's  adaptation  thereby  for  taking  his  place 
in  the  social  whole,  contributing  to  the  whole  because  of 
his  individuality,  benefiting  individually  because  of  his  social 
participation.  In  this  broader  function  of  education  indi- 
vidual and  social  instruction  find  their  unity. 

4.    SUMMARY 

Individual  instruction  is  complementary  to  social  instruc- 
tion, not  antagonistic  to  it.  Its  basis  is  in  the  individual 
differences  of  pupils,  resulting  from  both  environment  and 
heredity.  Environmental  differences  are  to  be  met  by  provid- 
ing opportunity  for  each  pupil  to  utilize  his  peculiar  advan- 
tages and  experience  in  his  school  study.  Hereditary  differ- 
ences of  pupils  are  of  three  classes:  of  thought,  of  tempera- 
ment, and  of  action.  Differences  of  thought  type  are  to  be 
met  by  giving  each  pupil,  whether  thing-thinker  or  idea- 
thinker,  such  special  attention  in  the  concrete-abstract- 
concrete  movement  of  thought  as  to  develop  that  phase  of 
the  thought  wherein  he  is  deficient,  as  well  as  to  develop  to 
the  fullest  usefulness  the  latent  possibilities  of  his  particular 
mental  make-up.  Temperamental  differences  call  for  such 


INDIVIDUAL  AND   SOCIAL   ELEMENTS  339 

individual  treatment  as  to  develop  quickness,  strength,  and 
breadth,  linking  feeling  with  thought  and  action.  With  the 
differences  of  action-type,  the  teacher  must  aim  to  establish  a 
balance  between  impulse  and  reflection.  In  all  efforts  at  in- 
dividual instruction,  whether  in  classroom,  study  period, 
laboratory,  or  personal  conference,  the  central  aim  must  be 
to  build  upon  student  activity,  by  providing  it  opportunity 
and  guidance  as  study  of  individual  needs  may  dictate. 

Social  instruction  must  secure  social  intelligence,  social 
disposition,  social  efficiency,  and  social  habit.  Social  intelli- 
gence involves  a  knowledge  of  subject  matter  of  the  curric- 
ulum in  its  social  implications,  a  knowledge  of  society  itself, 
and  an  understanding  of  one's  relation  to  society.  Social  dis- 
position implies  an  attitude  toward  the  claims  of  social  obliga- 
tion, and  is  based  upon  appropriateness  of  educational  ma- 
terial and  a  right  personal  relationship  between  teacher  and 
pupil,  and  between  pupils.  Social  efficiency,  or  the  capacity 
to  realize  social  ideals,  demands  opportunity  and  encourage- 
ment in  their  realization  in  the  life  of  the  school.  Social 
habit  implies  the  motivation  and  the  fixation  by  repetition 
toward  social  action.  The  socialization  of  instruction  in 
classroom,  laboratory,  or  study  period  is  based  upon  the  two 
principles  of  student  co-operation  and  teacher  leadership, 
permeated  with  an  attitude  of  mutual  helpfulness  and  con- 
sideration. 

The  relation  of  individual  and  social  instruction  is  one 
not  of  opposition  nor  of  independence  but  of  close  co-ordina- 
tion. True  individual  instruction  recognizes  individual  dif- 
ferences and  capacities  as  the  foundation  of  personal  develop- 
ment, and  social  instruction  is  based  upon  a  recognition  of 
personalities  as  social  assets,  and  a  synthesis  of  them  in  social 
action. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

i.  To  what  degree  should  the  teacher  permit  the  pupil  to  special- 
ize along  the  lines  for  which  he  is  most  adapted,  rather  than  to  attempt 


34°  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

the  development  of  his  other  possibilities  by  studies  which  train  in 
the  latter? 

2.  Is  there  danger  that  suggesting  to  pupils  their  peculiar  aptitude 
toward  certain  lines  of  work  will  tend  to  induce  an  attitude  of  neglect 
for  other  capacities? 

3.  Show  how  the  supervision  of  study  offers  peculiar  opportunity 
for  individualizing  instruction. 

4.  How  does  the  Batavia  System  (described  in  Bagley's  "  Class- 
room Management,"  chap.  XIV,  and  in  various  other  publications) 
provide  for  individual  instruction?    Does  it  tend  to  unduly  accentu- 
ate it? 

5.  Which  of  the  social  aims  of  education  are  best  attainable  by 
the  study  of  history?     Civics?     Manual  training? 

6.  Does  social  training  come  more  from  the  content  or  from  the 
method  of  study  of  the  secondary  school  subjects?     Why? 

7.  Suggest  ways  in  which  the  attitude  of  responsibility  of  the  class 
to  the  individual,  of  the  individual  to  the  class,  and  of  the  class  for 
the  individual  may  each  be  developed. 

8.  In  so  far  as  your  experience  goes,  do  teachers  tend  to  emphasize 
the  social  or  the  individual  aspects  of  education?    How  do  you 
account  for  the  emphasis  which  you  think  exists? 

SUPPLEMENTARY  READINGS 

Thorndike,  "Principles  of  Teaching,"  chap.  VI. 

Bolton,  "Principles  of  Education,"  chap.  XII. 

Parker,  "Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools,"  chap.  XV. 

Holmes,  "School  Organization  and  the  Individual  Child,"  chaps.  V, 

VI,  VII,  VIII. 

Strayer,  "Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process,"  chap.  XII. 
Howerth,  "The  Social  Aim  in  Education,"  in  the  "Fifth  Year  Book 

of  the  National  Herbart  Society,"  p.  69. 
Betts,  "Social  Principles  of  Education,"  pp.  305-313. 
King,  "Education  for  Social  Efficiency,"  chap.  XIV. 
King,  "Social  Aspects  of  Education,"  chap.  XIV. 
Johnston,  "Modern  High  School,"  chap.  VIII. 


APPENDIX 


LESSON  PLANS 

These  plans  are  not  given  as  models.  Rather,  they  are  intended 
merely  to  show  how  successful  teachers  have  planned  and  taught  les- 
sons, and  thereby  to  be  of  suggestive  value  to  others.  The  plans  have 
necessarily  been  rewritten  to  adapt  themselves  to  our  purpose.  Many 
points  of  personal  or  local  significance  have  been  omitted.  Much  in 
the  way  of  detail  and  of  pedagogic  explanation  has  been  introduced. 
To  some  degree  the  terminology  has  been  modified  to  conform  to 
that  we  have  adopted  in  our  text. 

In  these  lessons  the  amount  of  material  covered  is,  in  most  cases 
at  least,  to  be  taken  as  the  maximum  possible  with  favorable  con- 
ditions, such  as  well-graded  classes,  thoroughly  prepared  assignments, 
and  strict  economy  in  use  of  lesson  hour. 

PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Lesson  developed  yesterday :   Changes  in  river  valleys,  due  to  erosion. 

Assignment  for  to-day :  Text-book  treatment  of  same,  supplemented 
by  readings  on  various  typical  river  valleys.  Probably  a  labora- 
tory exercise  on  river  valleys,  possibly  a  field  excursion  to  some 
typical  valley  has  been  introduced  since  last  lesson,  with  atten- 
tion called  to  the  phenomena  to  be  studied  in  to-day's  lesson. 

Ltsson  to  be  developed  to-day:  The  disposition  of  stream  erosion 
products. 

Aim  of  lesson:  Knowledge  of  the  formation  resulting  from  deposition 
of  sediment.  Training  the  observation  and  interpretation  of 
physical  phenomena  of  environment. 

PROCEDURE 

CONTENT  METHOD 

Recitation 

Fundamental   features   of   a        "What    do   you   understand   the 
river  valley.  term    'river    valley'    to    include?" 

Have  students  point  out  the  extent 
of  a  few  river  valleys  upon  a  relief 


342 


APPENDIX 


Factors  determining  the 
course  of  a  stream:  lowest  level, 
obstruction,  character  of  soil. 

Surface  erosion. 


Erosive    factors    in    streams 
with  slight  fall. 


With  abrupt  fall. 


map.  Recall,  by  questioning,  the 
general  form  of  river  valleys;  trans- 
versely, and  longitudinally. 

"What  factors  determine  the 
course  of  a  stream?" 

"How  does  the  surface  water,  in 
its  movement  toward  streams,  affect 
the  surface  of  the  ground?" 

"In  case  the  stream's  course  offers 
very  little  fall,  what  effect  does  this 
have  upon  the  rapidity  of  the 
stream?"  "Upon  the  course  of  the 
stream?"  "How  would  obstruc- 
tions affect  the  course?"  etc. 

"In  case  the  stream's  course  gives 
abrupt  fall,  what  forms  will  be  the 
result?"  etc. 

Let  all  be  illustrated,  especially 
with  remote  and  generally  known  in- 
stances, since  yesterday's  lesson  em- 
ployed largely  illustrations  from  the 
local  environment.  Have  pupils 
make  schematic  drawings  of  the 
typical  forms  on  the  blackboard. 
"How  does  the  character  of  the  soil 
affect  the  course  of  the  stream?" 
Lay  emphasis  on  erosion.  Have 
class  work  out  summary  of  the  above 
on  board,  copying  same  into  note- 
books. 


Development 


Disposition    of    products 
stream  erosion. 


of  Raise  the  problem:  "What  do  you 
suppose  becomes  of  all  this  loose 
material  carried  away  by  the  ero- 
sion?" Suggest  solution  by  the 
further  question:  "How  is  water  able 
to  carry  off  such  heavy  material  as 
broken  rock,  etc.?"  "What  then 
would  cause  it  to  give  up  and  drop 
its  load?"  Recall  the  familiar  in- 
stance in  the  formation  of  lagoons. 


APPENDIX  343 

General  principle  of  deposi-  Formulation  of  hypothesis:  the 
tion  of  sediment.  deposition  of  sediment  wherever  the 

stream's  course  is  checked. 

Implications  of  hypothesis:  such 
deposits  might  be  looked  for,  e.  g., 
where  rapids  give  place  to  level 
stretches,  etc.  Let  students  suggest 
such,  tabulating  them  for  the 

Verification:  reference  to  personal 
observation,  maps,  reference  books, 
etc.,  for  a  verification  of  each  type. 

Application 

Forms    of     deposition:     la-        "What   form   would   the   deposit 

goons,    natural    dikes,    alluvial  take  in  each  of  the  types  tabulated  ?  " 

fans  and  cones,  deltas,  etc.,  es-  By  reference  to  pictures,  relief  maps, 

tuaries.     Selection  of  examples  etc.,  have  class  trace  out  the  typical 

depending      on      environment,  forms    of   deposition,    and    describe 

available  equipment,  etc.    Gen-  essential  features  of  each, 
eral  levelling  action  of  erosion. 

Assignment 

Text-book  treatment  of  above.  Think  out  the  economic  signifi- 
cance of  each  of  the  phenomena  studied.  Individuals  prepare  reports 
on  well-known  instances,  e.  g.,  the  Mississippi  Delta,  the  site  of  Inter- 
laken,  etc.  Students  bring  to  class  any  especially  good  pictures  of 
erosion  phenomena.  These  are  to  be  used  next  day  as  partial  material 
for  an  appreciation  of  the  natural  wonders  of  stream  erosion. 

ALGEBRA 

Lesson  developed  yesterday :   The  concepts  of  factor  and  factoring; 

the  separation  of  monomial  factors  from  quantities  of  one  or  more 

terms;    the  factoring  of  such  squares  as  a2  +  2db  +  b2  and  x*  — 

2xy  +  y*. 
Assignment  for  to-day :   An  exercise  containing  problems  calling  for 

the  factoring  of  such  expressions  as  x3  —  x,  ^xy3  —  6x,  4**  —  4*y 

+  y*.  etc. 
Lesson  to  be  developed  to-day:   The  factoring  of  polynomials  which  are 

perfect  squares. 
Aim  of  lesson :    A  better  knowledge  of  the   meaning  of  factoring, 

training  in  thinking  out  the  relationships  between  factoring  and 

multiplication,  a  knowledge  of  the  method  of  factoring  indicated, 

and  efficiency  in  its  use. 


344  APPENDIX 

PROCEDURE 

CONTENT  METHOD 

Recitation 

Meaning  of  terms:  factor,  "Is  b  a  factor  of  a  +  b?"  "Is 
factoring.  a  +  b  a  factor  of  a  +  b  +  cf" 

"Give  an  illustration  of  a  factor." 
"What  is  the  difference  between  that 
case  and  the  ones  I  gave ?"  "What 
do  y  )u  mean  by  a  factor?"  "Then 
wherein  were  my  examples  incor- 
rect?" etc. 

Assigned  and  supplementary  Report  on  difficulties.  Discussion 
problems  (for  test  and  drill).  of  any  experienced  by  several  stu- 
dents. Part  of  class  at  board,  part 
at  seats,  to  work  dictated  problems. 
Assist  students  with  difficulties  still 
unexplained.  Explanation  by  stu- 
dents of  typical  examples  worked 
upon  the  board.  Rapid  oral  drill 
on  simpler  problems. 

Review     and     propaedeutic.        Oral  quiz,  ending  with  squaring 
Squaring  of  polynomials  by  in-    of  a  +  b  +  c  on  board, 
spection. 

Development 

Discovery  of  method  for  fac-  Raise  the  problem:  "How  shall 
toring  squares  of  polynomials.  we  factor  re2  -f-  y2  +  z*  +  ^xy  +  zxt 

+  zyz?  P  +  m?  +  n*  +  2lm  +  2ln 
+  2tnn?  etc."  Discovered  to  be 
similar  to  the  square  of  a  +  b  +  c. 

Discussion  leading  to 

Hypothesis:  that  they  are  the 
squares  of  x  +  y  +  *,  I  +  m  +  n, 
etc.,  and 

Implications:  that  similar  expres- 
sions can  be  factored  in  like  manner. 

Verification:  have  class  square 
x  -f  y  +  *  and  similar  trinomials, 
comparing  results  with  expressions 
factored.  Extend  verification  to 
such  expressions  as  af2  -f  4y*  +  4  -f- 
4xy  +  4x  +  &y,  to  expressions  in- 


APPENDIX  345 

volving  negative  signs,  to  squares  of 
quadrinomials,  etc. 

Formulation  of  general  rule.          "In  all  these  expressions  we  have 

been  factoring,  what  common  char- 
acteristics do  you  see?"  Let  this 
take  the  form  of  a  summary,  e.  g. : 

1.  The  squares  give  the  terms  of 
the  factors. 

2.  There  are  as  many  terms  as 
squares. 

3.  The   cross   products   give   the 
signs. 

4.  The   cross   products   must   be 
double  cross  products. 

5.  There  must  be  a  cross  product 
for   every   possible   combination   of 
dissimilar  terms. 

Thence  develop  the  rule:  "A  poly- 
nomial consisting  of  several  positive 
squares  and  a  corresponding  number 
of  double  cross  products  of  the  terms 
represented  by  the  squares  may  be 
factored  into  .  .  .,"  etc.  General 
drill  on  statement  of  rule. 

Application 

Similar  problems  of  greater        Have  one  student  work  at  board 
difficulty.  two  or  three  examples  of  moderate 

difficulty,  with  class  dictating  the 
work  and  justifying  each  step. 
Have  a  typical  example  explained, 
making  suggestions  as  to  form  of 
explanation.  Follow  with  class  at 
board  working  similar  problems  not 
taken  from  text-book. 

Assignment 

Seiies  of  typical  problems  in  text-book,  of  greater  complexity  and 
difficulty  than  those  discussed  in  class.  Discuss  with  class  any  points 
which  the  students  are  not  prepared  to  study  out  independently. 


346  APPENDIX 

UNITED   STATES  HISTORY 

Lesson  developed  yesterday:  McKinley's  election  and  administration 
up  to  the  Spanish  War. 

Assignment  for  to-day :  Text-book  account  of  same  and  summary  of 
accounts  of  Nashville  Exposition  and  discovery  of  gold  in  the 
Klondike,  in  notebooks;  supplementary  readings  from  the  plat- 
forms of  the  various  political  parties,  and  selected  editorials  from 
newspapers  at  time  of  the  election.  Two  students  to  report 
jointly  on  Cuban  history,  1866-1895. 

Lesson  to  be  developed  to-day :   The  outbreak  of  the  Spanish  War. 

Aim  of  lesson  :  Knowledge  of  the  facts  and  significance  of  the  Cuban 
War,  formation  and  training  of  habit  of  impartially  seeking  causes 
and  motives  in  political  activities,  and  appreciation  of  the  moral 
issues  involved  in  the  declaration  of  that  war,  and  of  war  in 
general. 

PROCEDURE 

CONTENT  rETHOD 

Recitation 

Presidential  nominations  of  "We  have  seen  that  the  year  1896 
1896.  found  the  country  politically  divided, 

with  different  sections  urging  differ- 
ent demands  upon  political  leaders. 
Tell  us  about  this  sectional  division, 
with  the  demands  of  each  section." 
"How  do  you  account  for  the  various 
demands?"  "How  was  the  mem- 
bership of  the  parties  affected  by  this 
sectionalism?"  Question  for  the 
cleavage  within  parties,  the  fusion  of 
factions  of  hitherto  politically  op- 
posed groups,  the  nominations  of  the 
various  parties,  and  the  strategic 
motives  in  these  nominations. 

Campaign  of  1896.  Call  for  the  events  and  features  of 

the  campaign;  bring  out  comparison 
with  campaigns  of  1916  and  1920  as 
to  methods,  and  the  effect  of  meth- 
ods on  final  result. 

Proposed  Anglo-American  Topical  recitations,  covering  fre- 

General  Arbitration  Treaty.  quency  of  occasions  for  international 

disagreements,  recognition  of  need 


APPENDIX  347 

for  better  provision  for  arbitration, 
and  attempted  treaty  and  its  general 
provisions;  public  sentiment  in  the 
United  States  and  in  England  re- 
garding the  treaty;  defeat  of  mea- 
sure; effect  of  negotiations  upon  in- 
ternational friendship,  in  the  United 
States,  in  England,  and  on  the  Con- 
tinent. General  sentiment  toward 
international  peace. 

Implications  for  a  League  of  Na- 
tions. 

Summary  of  important  fea- 
tures of  the  administration  thus 
far. 

Development 

Situation  in  Cuba.  "Probably    the    most    important 

event  of  McKinley's  administration, 
perhaps  of  the  last  fifty  years  up  to 
that  time,  was  the  war  with  Spain. 
We  can  understand  its  significance 
only  by  understanding  how  it  came 
about."  Raising  an  information 
problem,  and  developing  with  the 
class,  in  outline  only,  the  form  of  the 
solution.  The  assignment,  followed 
by  next  day's  class  exercise,  is  to 
complete  the  solution. 

Recall  with  class  the  early  history 
of  Cuba,  including  the  basis  for 
Spain's  ownership  of  Cuba  and  the 
fact  that  Spain  had  retained  Cuba, 
while  disposing  of  or  losing  Florida 
and  other  colonies.  Call  for  report 
on  history  of  Cuba,  1866-1895.  Re- 
late briefly  the  events  of  the  Cuban 
revolt  from  1895  to  1897.  Study 
map  of  Cuba,  leading  pupils  to  ob- 
serve the  location  of  centres  of  popu- 
lation, the  main  lines  of  communica- 
tion, and  the  consequent  predomi- 
nant type  of  warfare  (guerilla).  In- 


348 


APPENDIX 


Maine  incident. 


Declaration  of  war. 


Summary. 


dicate  the  location  and  field  of  opera- 
tion of  the  Spanish  and  Cuban  armies 
and  lead  class  to  see  the  significance 
of  the  Reconcentration  Plan. 

Refer  to  the  sinking  of  the  Maine, 
and  the  subsequent  investigation  by 
the  United  States  and  by  Spain. 
Compare  with  report  of  1911  Board 
of  Investigation.  Let  the  students 
contribute  the  data  for  above  so  far 
as  possible. 

"What  effect  would  you  expect 
all  these  events  to  have  upon  popular 
feeling  in  the  United  States?"  For 
the  answer,  direct  attention  to  the 
economic  strength  of  the  United 
States;  popular  pride  in  the  navy, 
increased  by  the  naval  review  at 
Grant's  funeral;  popular  desire  for 
peace,  manifested  in  Arbitration 
Treaty  negotiations;  Spanish  op- 
pression and  American  attitude 
toward  any  country  seeking  to  be- 
come a  republic. 

Leave  the  verification  of  students,' 
anticipatory  judgment  to  the  assign- 
ment. 

Tell  the  class  about  the  note  to 
Spain,  Spain's  response,  and  the 
declaration -of  war. 

Develop  with  dass  a  summary  of 
the  Cuban  situation  and  outbreak 
of  Spanish  War,  as  already  consid- 
ered. Have  summary  entered  in 
notebooks,  as  outline  for  to-mor- 
row's study. 

Application 

"What  ought  to  be  our  attitude 
toward  war?"  Especially  in  case 
the  opposing  nation  is  too  weak  to 
offer  serious  opposition.  Compare 
with  the  dispute  with  Mexico,  in 


APPENDIX  349 

1845;  in  1916.  Compare  with  the 
entry  of  the  United  States  into  the 
great  World  War. 

Lead  class  to  see  that  the  whole 
situation  in  1896  was  but  a  natural 
outcome  of  the  general  movement 
toward  independence  of  the  Ameri- 
can peoples,  with  the  United  States 
as  the  strongest,  the  leader. 

Discuss  the  dawning  self-conscious- 
ness of  the  United  States  as  a  world- 
power  under  moral  as  well  as  political 
obligations  for  world  betterment. 

Assignment 

Text-book  study  of  the  events  discussed  in  the  lesson  develop- 
ment; note  particularly  for  study  the  friendly  official  policy  of  the 
administration  in  the  United  States  toward  Spain  before  the  war  was 
threatened,  and  the  interchange  of  warship  visits;  the  de  Lome  inci- 
dent; the  preparation  of  Spain  and  of  the  United  States  for  war,  and 
the  respective  advantages  of  each  due  to  geographical  position.  As- 
sign a  review  of  the  geography  of  the  West  Indies  and  the  coast  of 
Florida.  Assign  reading  of  Captain  Sigsbee's  personal  account  of  the 
sinking  of  the  Maine,  and  of  contemporary  editorials  dealing  with  the 
situation. 

SPANISH 

Designed  for  beginning  class:  freshmen  in  four  year  high  school. 
Period,  forty-five  minutes.  Direct  method ^so  far  as  practicable, 
directions  and  explanations  given  in  Spanish.  Whenever  possi- 
ble, the  meaning  of  the  expression  will  be  shown  by  the  perform- 
ance— by  both  teacher  and  class — of  appropriate  actions;  by  giv- 
ing equivalent  expressions  which  are  already  familiar  to  the  class; 
in  case  of  need,  by  translation  or  by  clear  explanation  in  English. 

Lesson  developed  yesterday :  Use  of  estar  in  the  present  indicative. 

Assignment,  for  to-day  :   Important  uses  of  set. 

Lesson  to  be  developed  to-day :  The  fundamental  distinctions  in  mean- 
ing and  use  between  ser  and  estar. 

Aim  of  lesson :  Knowledge  of  the  meaning  and  use  of  these  verbs, 
"''clinching"  of  the  knowledge  acquired,  and  power  to  use  the 
verbs  correctly  in  cases  which  should  admit  of  no  doubt. 


350  APPENDIX 

PROCEDURE 

CONTENT  METHOD 

Recitation 

Review  of  previous  assign-  Estoy  aqui.  <?D6nde  estoy  yo? 
ment.  Vds.  estan  alii,  i  Donde  estan  Yds.  ? 

I  Estamos  en  la  calle  ?  i  Estamos  en 
la  iglesia  ?  i  Estamos  en  la  escuela  ? 
El  libro  esta  sobre  la  mesa. 

<!Esta  Vd.  sentado?  i  Estoy  yo 
sentado?  Nosotros  estamos  sen- 
tados.  Yo  estoy  en  pie.  Vds.  estan 
sentados.  Ahora,  yo  estoy  sentado. 
Ahora,  Vds.  estan  en  pie. 

i  Donde  esta  la  clase?  La  clase 
esta  en  la  escuela.  £D6nde  esta  la 
escuela?  La  escuela  esta  en  la  calle 
de  Washington,  i  Donde  esta  la 
iglesia?  La  iglesia  esta  cerca  del 
Parque  Central,  i  Donde  estS.  nues- 
tra  ciudad?  La  ciudad  esta  en  los 
Estados  Unidos. 

Yo  estoy  bueno.  i  Estan  Vds. 
buenos?  Estamos  males.  Estamos 
enf ermos.  <!  Esta  Vd.  ocupado  ?  Yo 
estoy  ocupado.  La  puerta  esta 
abierta. 

Have  class  write  the  proper  verb 
form  in  the  following: 

Nosotros en  la  clase. 

Vds.  sentados. 

El  comerciante  en  el  des- 

pacho. 

Nuestra  casa  en  la  calle  de 

Santiago. 

Las  ventanas cerradas. 

Development 

Uses  of  ser.  Clase,  yo  soy  una  mujer,  Juan  es 

un  muchacho,  Maria  es  una  mu- 
chacha.  Yo  soy  la  maestra,  Vds. 
son  los  discipulos.  i  Maria,  es  Vd. 
la  maestra  ?  No,  senora,  yo  soy  una 
alumna.  dSomos  todos  mejicanos 


APPENDIX 


351 


aqui?  No,  senora,  somos  ameri- 
canos.  <IJuan,  es  Vd.  americano? 
Si,  senora,  soy  americano.  dSon 
Yds.  negros  como  esta  tinta?  No, 
senora,  no  somos  negros,  somos 
blancos.  Somos  de  la  raza  blanca. 
<>Son  Yds.  mujeres  o  son  Yds. 
hombres?  No  somos  ni  hombres  ni 
mujeres.  Somos  muchachos  y  mu- 
chachas.  <!  Pablo,  es  Vd.  medico? 
No  senora,  no  soy  medico.  Mi 
padre  es  medico.  £Es  su  padre 
medico,  Juan?  No,  senora,  no  es 
medico,  es  carpintero.  i  Maria,  es 
Vd.  rica?  No,  senora,  soy  pobre, 
pero  Emilia  es  rica.  <!De  que  color 
es  la  tinta?  (la  tiza,  la  casa,  el  libro). 
La  tinta  es  negra,  la  tiza  es  blanca, 
la  casa  es  verde,  el  libro  es  azul. 

Bring  out,  by  questions  on  material 
already  given,  that  the  verb  estar 
is  used  (a)  before  adverbial  expres- 
sions which  state  the  location  or 
position  of  the  person  or  object 
spoken  of.  It  is  used  in  answering 
the  question  "Where?"  (ft)  Before 
adjectives,  and  past  participles  used 
as  adjectives,  to  indicate  temporary 
conditions. 

NOTE. — The  use  of  estar  with  the 
gerund  has  not  been  touched  upon, 
since  it  would  probably  give  too 
many  details  in  one  lesson.  If  given, 
add  to  summary:  (c)  Before  the 
gerund  to  denote  temporary  occupa- 
tion (so-called  "progressive"). 

Bring  out  the  fact  that  ser  is  used 
(a)  before  adjectives  (and  adjective 
phrases)  which  denote  regular,  per- 
manent qualities  (especially  color 
and  nationality),  (b)  Before  nouns 
which  indicate  occupation,  profes- 
sion, or  inherent  nature. 


352  APPENDIX 

Assignment 
Use  the  proper  form  of  ser  or  estar  instead  of  the  dash. 

La  clase sentada  en  frente  de  la  maestra. 

La  pizarra detras  de  la  maestra. 

<iD6nde ellibro? 

I cerradas  las  ventanas  ? 

Carlos cerca  de  la  puerta. 

Los  alumnos americanos. 

Juan mejicano. 

la  maestra  y  Yds. los  alumnos. 

Juan  y  yo f  ranceses. 

I facil  la  lection? 

£  De  que  color la  tinta  ? 

Nosotros blancos. 

Nosotros de  la  raza  blanca. 

Alfonso  XIII rey  de  Espafia. 

El  padre  de  Juan abogado. 

El  comerciante rico. 

Mi  madre en  la  iglesia. 

Pedro  no en  la  escuela,  porque enfermo. 

El  abuelo  no  va  al  despacho,  porque viejo. 

NOTE. — It  is  quite  possible  that  the  lesson  outlined  above  may 
seem  to  be  too  long.  If  the  ground  is  to  be  covered  in  one  period,  the 
work  of  the  preceding  day  must  have  been  very  thoroughly  done,  so 
that  the  review  will  take  only  a  very  few  minutes.  The  sentences  on 
estar,  which  are  to  be  completed  by  the  pupils,  must  already  have 
been  written  on  the  board.  The  sentences  for  the  advance  assignment 
must  have  been  typed  or  mimeographed  so  that  a  copy  of  them  may  be 
given  to  each  pupil  at  the  close  of  the  period. 

ENGLISH 

Lesson  developed  yesterday:  Lowell's  "Vision  of  Sir  Launfal,"  Part 
First  and  Prelude  to  Part  Second. 

Assignment  for  to-day:  Careful  reading  of  same,  including  the  inter- 
pretation of  allusions  and  passages  not  discussed  in  the  develop- 
ment. A  comparison  and  contrast  of  Prelude  Second  with  Pre- 
lude First  as  to  atmosphere  and  feeling.  Significance  of  the  Holy 
Grail  and  the  quest  for  it;  the  qualifications  of  the  finder  of  it. 
Spirit  of  Sir  Launfal  in  this  prelude,  contrasted  with  that  shown 
in  Part  First.  Memorizing  of  special  passages,  including  that 
giving  the  reply  of  the  leper,  and  any  other  that  has  an  especial 
appeal  to  the  student. 


APPENDIX 


353 


Lesson  to  be  developed  to-day :  Part  Second. 

Aim  of  lesson :  Ethical  and  aesthetic  appreciation  of  the  thought  and 
its  expression;  training  in  the  interpretation  of  literature;  knowl- 
edge of  poem  as  standard  literature,  and  of  the  poet's  literary 
style,  and  type  of  writing. 


CONTENT 


PROCEDURE 
Recitation 


METHOD 


Background  for  Part  First. 


Part  First. 


Prelude  to  Part  Second. 


"What  purpose  do  you  suppose 
Lowell  has  in  putting  in  the  Prelude 
before  Part  First  ?  "  "  Show  us  how 
it  provides  the  setting  to  Part  First." 
Have  students  repeat  the  (memo- 
rized) passage  "What  is  so  rare  as  a 
day  in  June?"  etc. 
"'It  was  morning  on  hill  and  stream 
and  tree, 

And  morning  in  the  young  knight's 

heart.' 

What  does  that  passage  suggest  to 
you?" 

Call  for  brief  recital  of  story  of 
Part  First.  Emphasis  on  attitude 
of  Launfal  to  leper,  the  leper's  reply, 
and  its  moral  significance. 

Have  students  repeat  the  (mem- 
orized) passage  containing  leper's  re- 
ply. Hint  at  its  prophetic  signifi- 
cance, as  suggested  by  its  form  and 
its  position  in  the  poem.  "  What  do 
you  imagine  was  Launfal's  response 
to  the  leper?" 

Questions  regarding  meaning  of 
words  and  allusions,  figures  of  speech, 
style  of  author,  etc.,  in  the  selection 
assigned  for  the  day.  Look  for  har- 
mony between  style  and  spirit  of 
poem,  etc. 

Have  prelude  read  aloud,  the 
teacher  reading  the  first  few  lines,  the 
students  the  remainder.  "Does 
Mary's  reading  give  to  the  passage 


354  APPENDIX 

the  meaning  you  believe  is  there?" 
"Then,  if  not,  read  it  as  you  want 
it  read"  Call  for  the  comparison- 
contrast  between  Prelude  Second  and 
Prelude  First.  The  significance  of 
the  Holy  Grail  and  the  qualifications 
of  the  finder  of  it.  The  spirit  of  Sir 
Launfal  in  this  prelude,  compared 
with  that  shown  in  Part  One. 

Development 

Part  Second.  Silent,  followed  by  oral  reading  of 

Part  Second,  one  section  at  a  time; 
teacher  reading  the  first  section. 
After  the  reading  of  the  first  section, 
have  class  read  (silently)  lines  109- 
113,  and  ask  pupils  to  indicate  the 
points  of  contrast.  Emphasis  on 
sense  imagery,  to  form  background 
for  the  story.  Continue  with  read- 
ing of  the  remainder,  drawing  con- 
trast with  Part  First,  but  in  a  general 
way  only,  with  occasional  specific 
passages  or  phrases.  Develop  from 
the  appearance  of  Sir  Launfal  to  his 
manner  and  his  spirit.  Significance 
of  his  memory  picture  of  the  "sun- 
nier clime."  "Why  was  he  now  able 
to  see  in  the  leper  that  which  he  did 
not  see  in  Part  First?"  Contrast 
the  alms  given  in  the  two  cases;  the 
implication  in  "fine  wheaten  bread" 
and  "red  wine."  "Sir  Launfal  had 
found  the  Grail  at  last.  Where  did 
he  find  it?" 

Assignment 

Intensive  reading  of  Part  Second.  More  detailed  comparison  with 
Part  First.  Selection  of  the  best  word  pictures  and  expressive  phrases. 
Memorizing  of  the  passages  with  special  appeal,  including  lines  324-327. 
"What  does  the  poem  mean  to  you?"  (the  answer  to  be  carefully 
thought  out). 


APPENDIX  355 

HOME  ECONOMICS 
Designed  for  first  year  class  in  junior  high  school 

Lesson  developed  yesterday  :   The  cooking  of  fruit. 

Assignment  for  to-day  :  The  cooking  of  some  fruit  at  home,  as  an  ap- 
plication of  the  method  learned  in  school  yesterday. 

Lesson  to  be  developed  to-day :   The  cooking  of  breakfast  cereal. 

Aim  of  lesson :  Knowledge  of  the  properties  of  starch  and  the  effect 
of  heat  upon  it;  knowledge  of  and  efficiency  in  the  processes  of 
the  cooking  of  breakfast  cereal. 

PROCEDURE 

CONTENT  METHOD 

Recitation 

The  cooking  of  fruit,  in  the  "What  did  we  prepare  yesterday 
laboratory  and  in  the  home.  which  we  sometimes  like  for  break- 
fast?" "How  did  we  cook  the 
fruit?"  "Have  you  cooked  any 
fruit  at  home  since  we  learned  how 
yesterday?"  Questioning  to  see 
that  the  home  cooking  of  the  fruit 
was  an  application  of  principles  and 
processes  learned  yesterday. 

Development 

The  problem  of  the  lesson.  "  What  did  you  have  for  break- 

fast this  morning?"  (Fruits; 
cereals,  such  as  cream  of  wheat,  etc.) 
"We  know  now  how  to  cook  the 
fruit.  To-day,  let's  learn  how  to 
cook  the  cream  of  wheat,  in  case  our 
family  want  that  for  breakfast." 

Material  conditions  of  Demonstration  procedure,  with 

problem.  explanations.  Determine  contents 

of  package  of  cream  of  wheat,  in  cups 
and  by  weight;  cost  of  package. 

Process;  demonstration.  Teacher  proceeds  to  the  cooking, 

calling  attention  to  the  proportion  of 
salt  and  of  cereal  to  one  cup  of 
water,  and  the  adding  of  the  cereal 
to  the  water.  "How  can  you  tell 
how  long  to  cook  the  cereal  over  the 
flame?"  (Till  thick  enough  to  eat.) 


356 


APPENDIX 


Process; 
pupils. 


performance   by 


Properties  of  starch;  solubil- 
ity and  tests. 


"Why,  do  you  suppose,  it  is  better 
to  use  a  double  boiler?" 

1.  Prevents  burning. 

2.  Saves  time,  since  stirring  is  un- 
necessary. 

3.  Can  cook   cereal  a  long  time 
with  less  heat;  should  be  ^  hour, 
and  longer  if  possible. 

Pupils  cook  the  cream  of  wheat  as 
teacher  has  demonstrated;  using  3 
tablespoons  of  cream  of  wheat  in  i 
cup  of  boiling  water  to  which  % 
teaspoonful  of  salt  is  added. 

While  cereal  is  cooking,  take  up 
the  study  of  starch. 

1.  Experiments.     (Demonstration 
procedure.) 

a.  Insolubility     in     cold     water. 
Soak  a  little  cream  of  wheat  in  cold 
water.      Pour    off    water,    and    let 
stand  until  the  starch  settles  out. 
"Did  the  starch  dissolve  in  the  cold 
water?" 

b.  Solubility  in  hot  water.     Heat 
some  starchy  water  from  cream  of 
wheat.     "Is  starch   soluble  in  hot 
water?"     "What  difference  do  you 
observe  in  its  appearance?" 

c.  Detection  with  iodine.     Put  a 
few  drops  of  dilute  iodine  in  some 
starchy  water.     "What  color  does 
the  starchy  water  become  when  the 
iodine  is  added?" 

d.  Iodine  tests  with  other  foods. 
Have   pupils   make    the   test    with 
bread,  rice,  egg,  sugar,  and  butter 
(in  test-tubes). 

2.  Explain  to  class  the  cellulose 
wall  of  starch  granule,  and  the  need 
for  great  heat  to  break  it;  then  the 
swelling  of  the  starch  grains,  taking 
up  much  water,  making  the  mixture 
thick.    "  Suppose  that  you  wanted  to 


APPENDIX 


357 


Sources  of  starch. 


Manufactured  forms  of  cere- 
als; uncooked  and  cooked. 


Comparative  study  of  various 
cereal  foods. 


Serving;  principles  involved. 


find  out  whether  a  food  has  starch  in 
it.     How  would  you  do  it?" 

3.  Have  each  pupil  look  at  starch 
under  a  microscope,  and  try  to  draw 
a  starch  granule  on  the  board. 

4.  "Do  you  know  of  any  vege- 
tables that  have  starch  in  them?" 
Call  for  a  list  of  all  the  grains  the 
pupils  know.    "  Which  of  these  do  we 
eat  whole?"      (Rice.)      "Which  is 
cracked  in  big  pieces?"     (Cracked 
wheat,  oats.     Show  some  to  class.) 
"Which    are    cracked    very    fine?" 
(Cream    of    wheat.)      "Which    are 
rolled    out    flat?"      (Rolled    oats.) 
"Which  are  powdered  very  fine?" 
(Corn-starch  and  flour.) 

"What  cereals  do  we  eat  without 
cooking  them?"  "Are  these  un- 
cooked or  ready  cooked  in  manu- 
facture?" Show  some  of  these. 
"  Remembering  what  we  know  about 
starch,  why  would  uncooked  cereals 
be  useless  as  foods?" 

5.  Have    a    pupil    measure    and 
weigh  a  package  of  rolled  oats.    "If 
we  allow  (so  much)  for  a  serving, 
about  how  many  servings  do  you 
think  there  would  be  in  the  package 
of  rolled  oats  ?"    Place  on  the  board 
the    weight,    measure,    number    of 
servings,    and   cost   of   package   of 
rolled  oats,  and  of  cream  of  wheat. 
Ask  pupils  to  determine  what  each 
costs  for  one  serving.     Follow  the 
same    method    of    study    for   corn 
flakes  and  cream  of  wheat. 

6.  Serving  cereals.    Teacher  show 
the  cereal  she  has  cooked  in  dem- 
onstration   to     illustrate    thickness 
(thick  enough  to  hold  in  mouth  a  few 
moments).    If  possible,  show  several 
different  kinds  of  cereal  dishes  and 


spoons.  "Why  do  we  want  to  have 
cereal  very  hot  when  we  serve  it?" 
(Cools  quickly  when  cold  milk  or 
cream  is  added.)  "What  different 
things  have  you  seen  people  eat  on 
cereal?"  Teacher  completes  the 
list,  which  should  include:  cream, 
top  milk  or  whole  milk,  sugar  (pow- 
dered, brown,  or  granulated),  fruits 
which  may  be  served  in  or  with 
cereal.  Show  the  value  of  sugar  with 
cereal.  Unusual  accompaniments: 
butter  instead  of  cream,  maple  or 
other  syrup.  Dry  prepared  cereal 
(e.  g.,  corn  flakes)  on  hot  cooked 
cereal. 

Serving;  practical  exercise.  Have  class  serve  the  cereal  they 

have  cooked.  Teacher  see  that  this 
is  properly  done  (including  etiquette 
if  necessary). 

Have  laboratory  put  in  order. 
(Directions  in  previous  lessons  should 
suffice.) 

A  pplication-Expression 
Laboratory  application.  Have  each  pupil  prepare  and  serve 

a  dish  of  cream  of  wheat. 

Home    application    (assign-        Ask  each  girl  to  prepare  a  cereal  at 
ment).  home  and  report  about  it  to-morrow. 

Summary.  Have  class  summarize  the  prin- 

ciples introduced,  under  the  follow- 
ing heads: 

1.  Detection  of  starch. 

2.  Effect  of  boiling  water  on  it. 

3.  Sources  of  starch. 

4.  Kinds  of  cereals. 

5.  Steps    in    cooking    cream    of 
wheat. 

6.  Serving  a  cereal. 

7.  Use  of  double  boiler.    Advan- 
tages.   Substitutes. 

Ask  pupils  to  tell  some  one  at 
home  about  each  point  before  next 
lesson. 


APPENDIX  359 

Teacher's  Preparation  for  the  Lesson 

A.  Materials. 

1.  List  of  supplies  for  lesson. 

2.  List  of  dishes  and  utensils  necessary. 

3.  List  of  materials  for  teacher's  demonstration  and  experiments. 

4.  Board  work  necessary. 

5.  Microscope  and  slide  for  starch  prepared. 

6.  Supplies  for  class  work  ordered. 

B.  Time  schedule,  carefully  worked  out. 

1.  Recitation  procedure. 

2.  Teacher's  demonstration. 

3.  Pupil's  cooking  of  cereal  and  placing  in  double  boiler. 

4.  Study  of  starch  and  cereals. 

5.  Serving  cereals. 

6.  Putting  laboratory  in  order. 

7.  Summary. 


The  foregoing  lesson  plans  are  all  o\  the  development  type;  not 
because  all  lessons  should  be  of  that  type,  but  because  development 
lessons  are  as  a  class  most  difficult  to  plan,  and  hence  call  especially 
for  illustration.  It  is  felt  that  lessons  of  the  recitation  type  demand 
no  further  illustration  than  is  given  in  the  recitation  and  expression- 
application  procedure  of  the  lesson  plans  given  above. 


INDEX 


Absoluteness,  of  measurement,  271 ; 

of  standard,  264. 
Abstract  as  related  to  concrete,  109, 

131- 

Acquired  efficiency,  transfer  of,  21- 
25;  basal  principle  in  transfer- 
rence,  21;  in  information  prob- 
lems, 138;  in  thought  problems, 
167;  pedagogical  applications  of 
the  principle,  24. 

Acquisition  of  information,  32,  132, 
228. 

Act  of  thought,  composition  of,  139. 

Action  type,  differences  in,  313. 

Activity,  as  basis  for  learning,  10, 
100,  130;  distribution  of,  50;  im- 
portance in  classroom,  48;  in 
questioning,  64. 

Adams,  37,  50. 

Adequacy,  of  answer,  68;  of  expres- 
sion, 70,  197. 

Adolescence,  6. 

Aims  in  Instruction  (Chapter  III), 
28-42;  educational  aims,  28; 
aims  of  instruction,  29;  essen- 
tials of  instruction,  30;  factors 
of  method,  31;  lesson  aim,  35; 
modes  of  instruction,  39;  lesson 
types,  39;  formal  steps,  40;  sum- 
mary, 41 ;  aim  of  appreciation  in- 
struction, 174;  of  laboratory  in- 
struction, 209. 

Algebra,  lesson  plan,  343;  tests  for, 
277. 

Analogy,  107. 

Analysis,  19,  57,  139;  in  apprecia- 
tion, 182. 

Analytic  question,  57. 

Answer,  the,  in  questioning,  68. 

Anticipatory  judgment,  141. 


Appeal,  of  appreciation  situation, 
184;  of  problematic  situation, 

147- 

Appendix,  341. 

Apperception  in  teaching,  94,  106. 

Application,  in  study,  195,  210, 
235!  application  laboratory,  215; 
meaning  of,  188;  of  measure- 
ment, 267;  through  quiz,  81;  re- 
lation to  home  study,  194;  rela- 
tion to  laboratory,  208;  relation 
to  verification,  157. 

Appreciation,  testing  for,  268. 

Appreciation  factor,  35. 

Appreciation  laboratory,  214. 

Appreciation  Mode  (Chapter  IX), 
173-187;  character  and  function, 
173;  meaning  of  sentiment,  173; 
aim  of  appreciation  instruction, 
174;  types  and  forms  of  appre- 
ciation, 176;  appreciation  in  the 
high  school  curriculum,  176;  pro- 
cedure in  appreciation  mode,  177; 
appreciation  by  teacher,  178; 
realness  of  situation,  178;  famili- 
arity with  medium  of  expression, 
180;  understanding  of  thought, 
182;  appeal  of  situation,  184; 
classroom  atmosphere,  185;  sum- 
mary, 1 86. 

Appreciation  study,  233. 

Appropriateness  of  instruction,  76. 

Arithmetic,  test  for,  276. 

Artisan  teacher,  4. 

Artist  teacher,  4. 

Assignment,  relation  to  develop- 
ment, 125;  relation  to  class  work, 
201;  time  of,  202;  definitcness  of, 
203;  motivation  of,  204;  amount 


361 


362 


INDEX 


of,  204;  in  laboratory,  216;  in 
lesson  plan,  250. 

Assistance  by  teacher  and  individual 
instruction,  319. 

Association,  associative  learning, 
17;  after  dissociation,  18;  in 
memory,  89 ;  in  information  prob- 
lem, 138;  in  thought  problem, 
139;  in  study,  231. 

Atmosphere  of  classroom,  47,  185. 

Attention,  importance  of,  14;  secur- 
ing of,  15;  active  and  secondary 
passive,  16;  in  dissociation,  20; 
in  study,  241. 

Attitude  of  study,  225. 

Bagley,  137. 
Baker,  183. 
Ballou,  276. 
Bigelow,  217. 
Blackboard,  49,  201,  255. 
"Born"  teachers,  4. 
Bourne,  176,  209. 
Breslich,  195,  242. 
Brevity  of  question,  61. 

Carpenter,  Baker,  and  Scott,  183. 

Charters,  56. 

Chubb,  137. 

Clapp,  284. 

Class  conference,  44. 

Class  Exercise  (Chapter  IV),  43-54; 
meaning,  43;  personality  in  class 
exercise,  45;  atmosphere  of  class 
exercise,  47,  185;  classroom  ac- 
tivity, 48;  summary,  53;  social 
aspect  of,  327. 

Classification,  144. 

Colvin,  1 80. 

Comparison  of  achievements,  262, 
296. 

Comparison-contrast,  226;  ques- 
tion, 58. 

Composition  of  an  act  of  thought, 

139- 

Concept,  24. 
Concrete  to  abstract,  109,  131,  156, 

192. 


Conditions  for  study,  236. 
Conditions  of  drill,  90,  231. 
Conference,  44,  83,  244,  318. 
Consciousness  in  method,  2. 
Content  of  lesson,  248. 
Contrast,   226;    contrast  question, 

58- 

Conversational  method,  104. 
Co-operation  of  students,  36,  329. 
Correction  through  quiz,  80. 
Courtis,  276,  277,  300. 
Cramming,  93. 

Deduction,  no,  131,  141,  144,  164; 
deductive  method,  no,  141,  164; 
deductive  problem,  131,  142,  143, 
164. 

Definiteness,  of  assignment,  203; 
of  hypothesis,  153;  of  problem, 
143;  of  standard,  264. 

De  Garmo,  13,  49,  56,  122,  130,  144, 
148,  212. 

Description,  in  English  composi- 
tion, 276;  in  laboratory,  213. 

Development.  See  Lesson  devel- 
opment. 

Development  question,  57. 

Dewey,  I,  33,  41,  44,  50,  IIO,  130, 

135,  139- 

Diagnostic  grading,  302. 

Differences,  individual,  n;  en- 
vironmental, 310;  hereditary, 
311;  intellectual,  311;  of  tem- 
perament, 313;  of  action,  313. 

Differentiation,  338. 

Directing  of  interest,  13. 

Discovery,  12 1,  137. 

Discussion  in  quiz,  81. 

Disjunction,  18. 

Dissociation,  18,  138. 

Distribution,  of  activity,  50;  of 
grades,  288,  301 ;  of  questions,  64. 

Drill,  34;  recitation  as  drill,  83; 
function  of,  83;  applicability  of, 
83,  231;  upon  processes,  85; 
upon  facts,  87;  conditions  of,  90; 
application  of,  92;  in  study,  230, 
231. 


INDEX 


363 


Effect,  law  of,  85. 

Efficiency,  as  aim  in  instruction, 
293.  325*.  in  teaching,  2,  259; 
testing  for,  269;  question  as  in- 
dex of  efficiency,  67. 

Emotion,  173. 

Empathy,  174. 

Enforcement  of  lesson  preparation, 

79- 

English  composition,  test  for,  273. 

English  lesson  plan,  352. 

Environmental  differences,  310. 

Equipment  of  child,  10. 

Evaluation  of  methods  of  instruc- 
tion, 297. 

Examination,  82,  259. 

Excursion,  213. 

Exercise,  law  of,  86. 

Exercises,  193. 

Experience  as  source  of  information, 
134,  228. 

Experimental  laboratory,  211. 

Explanation,  160. 

Expression-Application  Mode 
(Chapter  X),  188-206;  character 
and  function,  188;  forms  of  expres- 
sion and  application,  190;  home 
study  as  application,  194;  essen- 
tials of  expression  and  applica- 
tion, 196;  lesson  assignment,  201 ; 
summary,  205;  expression  in 
study,  236;  expression  in  testing, 
295;  familiarity  with  medium  of 
expression,  180. 

Factors  of  method,  31. 
Facts,  drill  upon,  87,  231. 
Familiarity,  of  illustration,  113;   of 

medium  of  expression,  180. 
Fatigue,  in  drill,  91;   in  study,  241. 
Feeling,  29,  30,  33,  101,  173,  189, 

313. 

Field  excursion,  213. 

Finding-out  problem,  131,  228. 

Fixation  in  drill,  86. 

Formal  discipline,  21.  See  Trans- 
fer of  acquired  efficiency. 

Formal  steps,  40. 


Forms  of  application,  192. 

Forms  of  expression,  191. 

Formulation  of  problem,  143. 

French,  test  for,  283. 

Frequency,  distribution  of,  288. 

Function  of  teacher,  in  laboratory, 
217;  in  thought  problem,  162. 

Fundamental  Principles  of  Learn- 
ing (Chapter  II),  10-27;  the 
child's  equipment,  10;  interest 
and  teaching,  1 1 ;  attention  and 
teaching,  14;  associative  learn- 
ing, 17;  transfer  of  acquired 
efficiency,  2 1 ;  summary,  25. 

Generalization,  24,  81. 
Genuineness  of  expression,  197. 
Geometry,  tests  for,  285. 
German,  tests  for,  283. 
Grading  of  pupils'  work,  287,  301. 

Habit,  social,  29,  326. 
Habit-forming,  85,  230. 
Handwriting,  test  for,  272. 
Harvard-Newton  test,  276. 
Hereditary  differences,  II,  311. 
Heuristic  method,  121. 
Hillegas,  273,  275. 
History  lesson  plan,  346. 
Home  economics  lesson  plan,  355. 
Home   study,   as  application,    193, 

199;    justification   of,    195,   222; 

relation    to    class   exercise,    195; 

relation  to  laboratory,  207. 
Hotz,  279. 
Hypothesis,  152,  162,  232. 

Illustration,  in;  relation  to  anal- 
ogy, 116;  requirements  of,  113. 

Imagery,  179. 

Immediacy  of  expression  and  ap- 
plication, 197. 

Impression  in  memory,  88. 

Inclusiveness  of  standard,  265. 

Individual  and  Social  Elements  in 
Secondary  Interaction  (Chapter 
XV),  309-340;  individual  instruc- 
tion, 309;  social  instruction,  319; 


364 


INDEX 


relation  between  individual  and 
social  instruction,  336;  summary, 

338. 

Individual  differences,  1 1,  45,  309. 

Individual  instruction,  meaning, 
309;  environmental  differences, 
310;  hereditary  differences,  311; 
teacher's  attitude  toward  indi- 
vidual differences,  315;  specific 
forms  of  individualizing  instruc- 
tion, 316. 

Individual  needs  of  pupils,  262,  299, 

309- 

Inducing  of  interest,  12. 
Induction,  no,  131,  141,  144,  164; 

inductive  method,  164;  inductive 

problem,  131. 
Inference,  214. 
Information  problem,  131. 
Information-getting  in  study,  228. 
Initiation  in  drill,  85. 
Instincts,  10. 
Instruction,  adequacy  of,  75;   aims 

of,  29;   essentials  of,  30. 
Integration,  338. 
Intellectual  differences,  311. 
Intelligence  of  drill,  91. 
Interest,  directing  of,  13;    inducing 

of,  12;   interest  and  teaching,  II. 
Investigation  by  student,  137. 

James,  19,  85,  87. 

Johnston,  5. 

Journal  of  Educational  Psychology, 

297. 

Judd,  22,  181,  242. 
Judgment  in  appreciation,  173,  234. 
Judgment  question,  58. 

Kansas  silent  reading  test,  286. 
Kelly,  286. 

Knowledge,  29;    social,  321;    test- 
ing for,  267. 
Known  to  unknown,  106. 

Laboratory  in  lesson  plan,  252. 
Laboratory  instruction,  317;  as  ap- 
plication, 192,  215. 


Laboratory  Mode  (Chapter  XI), 
207-22 1 ;  relation  to  home  study, 
207;  to  development,  207;  to 
application,  208;  aims,  209;  ex- 
perimental, 211;  observational, 
212;  appreciation,  214;  applica- 
tion, 215;  problem  assignment, 
216;  function  of  teacher,  217; 
results,  219;  summary,  220; 
socialization  of  laboratory,  334. 

Ladies'  Home  Journal,  194. 

Latin,  test  for,  283. 

Law  of  effect,  85. 

Law  of  exercise,  86. 

Leadership  of  teacher,  329. 

Learning,  88,  102. 

Lecture  method,  122. 

Lesson  aim,  character  of  aim,  36; 
student's  aim,  36;  teacher's  aim, 
35;  in  lesson  plan,  248;  in  study, 
226. 

Lesson  assignment,  201,  240,  250. 

Lesson  content,  248. 

Lesson  Development  (Chapter  VII), 
100-128;  learning  and  feeling, 
100;  meeting  of  situations,  100; 
development  in  teaching,  102; 
known  to  unknown,  106;  analo- 
gy, 107;  simple  to  complex,  109; 
concrete  to  abstract,  109;  illus- 
tration, in;  student  contribu- 
tion in  development,  1 16;  Socratic 
method,  118;  heuristic  method, 
121 ;  lecture  method,  122;  place 
of  development  in  class  exercise, 
123;  relation  to  recitation,  123; 
relation  to  assignment,  125;  re- 
lation to  laboratory,  209;  in  les- 
son plan,  248;  summary,  126. 

Lesson  Organization  (Chapter 
XIII),  247-258;  significance  of 
organization,  247;  the  lesson 
plan,  248;  summaries  in  the  les- 
son, 254;  review  and  the  review 
lesson,  255;  summary,  257. 

Lesson  outline  in  study,  227. 

Lesson  plan,  248.  See  Lesson  or- 
ganization. 


INDEX 


Lesson  plans,  illustrative,  341. 

Lesson  preparation,  76. 

Lesson  types,  39. 

Library,  213,  219. 

Lloyd  and  Bigelow,  164,  176,  211. 

MacVannel,  4. 

Mahy,  182. 

Mathematical  report  cards,  80. 

Matured  answer,  68. 

Measurableness,  265. 

Measurement,  259;  applications  of, 
267;  essentials  in,  263;  kinds  of, 
271;  teacher's  use  of,  292. 

Medium  of  expression  in  apprecia- 
tion, 1 80. 

Meeting  of  situations,  100. 

Memory,  83,  87;  memory-forming 
(memorizing),  87,  229;  memory 
question,  56. 

Mental  conditions  for  study,  239. 

Method,  i,  6. 

Minnich,  244. 

Modes  of  instruction,  39. 

Monroe,  277. 

Mood,  47,  185. 

Moore,  151. 

Motivation,  in  assignment,  204;  in 
drill,  230;  in  problem,  146;  in 
study,  240. 

Munch,  5,  53. 

Note-taking,  136. 

Objectivity  of  standard,  264. 
Observation,    134,    137,    168,    210, 

213,  228. 

Observational  laboratory,  213. 
Oral  quiz,  80. 

Organization,  significance  of,  247. 
Organization   and    unity   in   lesson 

plan,  247,  253. 
Organization  in  study,  226. 
Orientation  in  study,  226. 
O'Shea,  325. 

Outline  of*  lesson  in  study,  227. 
Over-instruction,  117. 


Parker,  91,  104,  242,  332. 

Percentage  grading,  289. 

Permanency,  as  an  aim  in  teaching, 
31,  83;  testing  for,  269. 

Personality,  45. 

Pettiness  in  appreciation  instruc- 
tion, 185. 

Physical  conditions  for  study,  237. 

Physical    geography    lesson    plan, 

341- 

Physics,  test  for,  282. 

Pillsbury,  87. 

Pivotal  question,  250. 

Plan  of  lesson,  248.  See  Lesson  or- 
ganization. 

Plato,  1 20. 

Practicability  of  standard,  265. 

Preparation  of  lesson,  75,  76. 

Preparedness  of  teacher,  52. 

Principles  of  method,  5. 

Problem,  129. 

Problem  assignment  in  laboratory, 
216. 

Problematic  Mode  (Chapter  VIII), 
129-172;  character  and  function 
of  problem,  129;  sources  of  in- 
formation, 132;  composition  of 
an  act  of  thought,  139;  procedure 
in  thought  type  of  problematic 
mode,  142;  application  of  prob- 
lematic mode,  163;  summary, 
170. 

Problems  in  study,  228. 

Processes,  drill  upon,  85,  230. 

Project  method,  149. 

Proof,  161. 

Propaedeutic  function  of  recitation, 
94,  251. 

Quest  (Hall-Quest),  244. 

Question  (Chapter  V),  55-73;  func- 
tion, 55;  kinds,  56;  essentials  of 
good  questioning,  59;  manner  of 
questioning,  63;  number  of  ques- 
tions, 67;  the  answer,  68;  pupil's 
question,  71;  summary,  72;  in 
lesson  plan,  249. 

Quiz,  80. 


366 


INDEX 


Reading,  as  source  of  information, 
133;  test  for,  286. 

Realness,  of  appreciation  situation, 
178;  of  problem,  146. 

Reasoning,  19. 

Reasoning  implications  of  hypothe- 
sis, 154,  232. 

Reavis,  238. 

Recall,  88. 

Recitation  in  lesson  plan,  251. 

Recitation  Mode  (Chapter  VI),  74- 
99;  meaning  of  recitation,  43,  74; 
recitation  as  testing,  75;  recita- 
tion as  drill,  83;  propaedeutic 
function  of  recitation  (appercep- 
tion), 94,  251 ;  summary,  98. 

Recognition,  88,  89. 

Recognition  of  problem,  143. 

Reflection,  32. 

Rein,  36,  41,  95. 

Relative  measurements,  271. 

Repetition  in  drill,  86,  90. 

Response  to  situation,  101,  129,  173. 

Results,  use  made  of,  in  laboratory, 
219. 

Retention,  87. 

Review,  94,  255. 

Review  lesson,  256. 

Rogers  test,  281,  286. 

Rugg  and  Clark,  281. 

Sackett,  286. 

School  museum,  213. 

School  work,  forms  of,  43. 

Scientific  method,  168. 

Securing  and  controlling  associa- 
tions, 17,  231. 

Securing  of  attention,  15. 

Self-control,  207,  222. 

Self-direction,  222. 

Self-teaching,  223. 

Sensitivity  to  problems,  169. 

Sentiment,  30,  173. 

Simple  association,  17,  85. 

Simple  to  complex,  109,  199. 

Situation  and  response  (meeting  of 
situation),  100,  129,  173. 


Skew  in  graph  of  grade  distribution, 
290,  304. 

Skill,  2,  210. 

Smith  and  Hall,  160,  176. 

Sneddon,  150. 

Social  aims  (social  intelligence,  dis- 
position, efficiency,  habit),  29. 
See  also  under  Social  instruction. 

Social  clearing-house,  44. 

Social  instruction,  319;  social  intel- 
ligence, 32 1 ;  social  disposition, 
323;  social  efficiency,  325;  social 
habit,  326;  school  agencies  for 
social  instruction,  327;  forms  of 
socialization  of  instruction,  330. 

Socialized  recitation,  332. 

Socratic  method,  118. 

Soundness  of  hypothesis,  153,  155, 
232. 

Source  method  in  history,  209. 

Sources,  use  of,  in  laboratory,  218. 

Sources  of  information,  132,  228. 

Spanish  lesson  plan,  349. 

Spirit  of  work,  48. 

Standards  and  Measurements  in  In- 
struction (Chapter  XIV),  259- 
308;  need  and  value,  259;  essen- 
tials in  measurement,  263;  mea- 
surableness,  265;  applications  of 
measurement,  267;  typical  stand- 
ards and  forms  of  measurement, 
271 ;  practical  value  of  standard- 
ization and  measurement,  292; 
summary,  306. 

Starch,  22,  78,  282,  283,  304. 

Statement  of  verification,  159. 

Steps  in  thinking,  139. 

Stevens,  56,  67. 

Stockard  and  Bell,  285. 

Strayer,  71. 

Stromquist,  278. 

Student  activity,  10,  48,  64,  67. 

Student  contribution  of  illustration, 
116. 

Student  responsibility,  329. 

Student's  aim  in  lesson,  36. 

Study,  teaching  to,  223;  self-teach- 
ing, 223;  study  attitude,  225; 


INDEX 


367 


orientation  and  organization,  226; 
information-getting,  228;  memo- 
rizing, 229;  thinking-out  of  prob- 
lem, 232;  appreciation,  233; 
application  in  study,  235 ;  expres- 
sion, 236;  conditions  for  study, 
236. 

Study  as  Self-Teaching  (Chapter 
XII),  222-246;  student  self-con- 
trol and  self-direction,  222 ;  justi- 
fication of  home  study,  222; 
teaching  to  study,  223;  super- 
vised study,  241;  summary,  244. 

Study  attitude,  225. 

Study  hour,  318;    socialization  of, 

335- 

Study  programme,  238. 
Summaries  in  the  lesson,  254. 
Supervised  study,  241. 
Synthesis,  19,  139. 

Teacher's  aim  in  lesson,  35. 
Teacher's  appreciation,  178. 
Teacher's  function  in  hypothesis, 

154- 

Teacher's  function  in  thought  prob- 
lem, 162. 

Teaching  to  study,  223. 

Telling,  132,  135. 

Temperament,  differences  in,  313. 

Tempo,  53,  185. 

Tentative  solution  of  problem,  151. 

Testing,  34,  75,  259;  ultimate  func- 
tion of,  299. 

Text -books,  133,  136. 

Thinking,  steps  in,  139. 

Thorndike,  17,  22,  85,  94,  264,  269, 

273,  275,  31 1,  316. 
Thought    problem,    131,    142;     in 

study,  232;    procedure  in,  142. 
Thought-power,  30;  testing  for,  268. 


Thought-provoking    question,    60; 

thought-provoking  in  laboratory, 

217. 

Thought-type,  differences  in,  312. 
Time,  use  of,  in  study,  238. 
Time  of  assignment,  202. 
Titchener,  87,  173. 
Topical  recitation,  69. 
Training,  transfer  of.    See  Transfer 

of  acquired  efficiency. 
Traits,  native  and  acquired,  10. 
Transfer  of  acquired  efficiency,  21, 

138,    167;     pedagogical    applica- 
tion of,  24. 
Translation,  193. 
Twiss,  44. 
Types    of    appreciation,    176;     of 

hypothesis,    152;    of  lesson,   39; 

of  problem,  131. 

Understanding  of  thought  in  ap- 
preciation mode,  182. 

United  States  History  lesson  plan, 
346. 

Unity  in  lesson  plan,  253. 

Universality  of  application,  200. 

Validity  of  verification,  157. 

Variety  in  procedure,  50. 

Verification,  of  hypothesis,  156,  163; 
in  laboratory,  210;  relation  to  ap- 
plication, 157;  relation  to  proof, 
161. 

Waste  in  laboratory,  prevention  of, 

218. 

Weglein,  304. 
Welton,  217. 

Will  type,  differences  in,  313. 
Woodhull,  150,  151. 

Young,  80,  165,  176. 


LS 
fco 
P6 


THE  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

Santa  Barbara 
Goleta,  California 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW. 


20m-3,'59(A552s4)476 


! 
'  . 


/ 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


A    001  372  996 


